Лингвистика текста и переводческое реферирование. Учебное пособие
.pdfHOW BIG ARE BLACK HOLES?
The black hole in Cygnus X-1 has a mass about 20 times that of the sun, which is pretty typical for black holes throughout the universe. In our own galaxy, scientists have identified anywhere between 10 million and a billion black holes, NASA reported.The closest known black hole is Cygnus X-1, which lurks just over 6,000 light-years away (although there are unconfirmed black holes as close as 1,000 light-years away).
But in the center of the Milky Way – and at the center of almost every other galaxy – sits a monster, a supermassive black hole. Supermassive black holes are millions of times more massive than the sun, and some can even reach hundreds of billions of times more massive than the sun. These giants reach stupendous sizes by feeding on surrounding matter and merging with other black holes over the course of hundreds of millions of years.
WHAT DO BLACK HOLES LOOK LIKE?
Black holes are just that, they're "black" in that they do not emit any light., But astronomers can still detect them through both the gravitational effects they have on other objects and their messy eating habits.
For some black holes, primarily the supermassive ones, astronomers can see them because of the quasars they produce. Quasars are intensely bright sources of radio emission. When matter falls onto a black hole, it gets compressed and heats up in a souped-up version of Cygnus X-1. The disk of material surrounding the black hole can glow brighter than its entire host galaxy, and is capable of launching jets of super-heated, nearly-light- speed particles out for tens of thousands of light-years, NASA said.
Another way to "see" black holes is when they merge. When two black holes collide, they send out ripples in space-time known as gravitational waves. These waves are incredibly weak, but sensitive instruments on Earth are capable of detecting them. To date, astronomers have identified 50 black hole merger events.
The only true "image" of a black hole ever created came out in 2019, when astronomers used the Event Horizon telescope – a network of dishes spanning the entire Earth – to snap an image of this lit-up disk of material swirling around a black hole called51M87*, Live Science reported at the
time. Weighing 3 billion times that of the sun and sitting in a galaxy over 50 million light-years away, M87* looked like a distorted orange donut in that image. Since it's impossible to take a picture of the black hole itself (because no light can escape), what the astronomers instead saw was its "shadow," the hole in the glowing material surrounding it.
WHAT IF YOU FELL INTO A BLACK HOLE?
It's a good thing that the nearest black holes are thousands of lightyears away from us. From a distance, black holes act like any other massive objects in the universe. In fact, if you were to replace the sun with a solar-mass black hole, the orbit of the Earth would remain completely unchanged (all the plants would die, but that's a different problem). But near a black hole, the gravitational forces are so strong that you would be stretched head-to-toe into a long, thin strand of particles before even reaching the event horizon, a terrible fate quaintly called "spaghettification." (27).
5. Реферат научной статьи
2019.13.05 ЛИЗА МИЛЛЕР, ИРИС. М. БАЛОДИС, КЛЕЙТОН Х. МАККЛИНТОН, ДЖИАНСОНГ СУЙ, ШЕРИЛ. М. ЛАКАДИ, РАДЖИТА СИНХА И МАРК. Н. ПОТЕНЗА, НЕЙРОННЫЙ КОРРЕЛЯТ ЛИЧНОГО ДУХОВНОГО ОПЫТА
Lisa Miller, Iris M. Balodis, Clayton H. McClintock, Jiansong Xu, Cheryl M. Lacadie, Rajita Sinha and Marc N. Potenza. Neural Correlates of Personalized Spiritual Experiences / Oxford University Press. – 2019. –
13.05Ключевые слова: функциональная магнитно-резонансная томография, перцепция, духовность, напряжение/стресс
В данной статье исследуется нейронные механизмы духовного опыта с помощью путем их сравнения с нейтральным состоянием и состоянием стресса.
Статья состоит из предисловия и трёх частей: «Материалы и методы», «Результаты», «Обсуждение».
В разделе «Материалы и методы» описывается ход эксперимента, включая отбор участников (представители разных
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полов, возрастов и рас), проведённые заранее опросы (о болезнях, зависимостях и предыдущих духовных опытах), сбор данных с помощью функциональной магнитно-резонансной томографии и анализ результатов.
В разделе «Результаты» представлены полученные данные: при духовном состоянии активность в левой нижней теменной доле снижена по сравнению с нейтральным состоянием, но повышена по сравнению с состоянием стресса. То же, как утверждается в статье, касается активности в предклинье. В таламусе, как показало исследование, напротив, активность при духовном опыте повышена по сравнению с нейтральным состоянием, но понижена по сравнению с состоянием стресса.
В разделе «Обсуждение» поясняются полученные результаты. Указывается, что с функционированием указанных выше участков головного мозга связано восприятие человеком времени, пространства, положения своего тела и внешних объектов. Таламус, активность в котором была повышена по сравнению с нейтральным состоянием и понижена по сравнению с состоянием стресса, отвечает за обработку сенсорной и эмоциональной информации.
Статья, с одной стороны, рассматривает нейронные механизмы, участвующие в создании духовного опыта, а с другой стороны, предлагает новый метод исследования нейронных коррелятов.
АННОТАЦИИ
Аннотации (abstracts) являются самым кратким видом реферирования. Слово «abstract» происходит от латинского «abstractum», что означает сокращенную форму более длинного письменного текста. В отличие от реферата, в аннотации не раскрывается кратко содержание первичного текста, а только указывается, о чем данный текст. Аннотации пишутся, как правило, на научные статьи, чтобы ученый мог быстро определить, необходимо ли ему знакомиться с текстом статьи полностью. Аннотация является кратким изложением того, о чем идет речь в статье.
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Существуют аннотации-примечания и аннотации-резюме – такое разделение происходит в соответствии с природой исходного материала. Аннотация-примечание включает основные тематические аспекты оригинала в обобщенном варианте. Аннотация-резюме имеет минимальную длину и требует гораздо большего обобщения информации, чем аннотация-примечание (21).
Существует два основных типа аннотаций: (1) описательные и
(2) информативные. Тип аннотации зависит от научной области
статьи«.Хорошая аннотация использует один хорошо проработанный абзац, который является последовательным и кратким, и может использоваться как единая единица информации; охватывает все основные академические элементы полноформатной статьи, а именно: предысторию, цель, направленность, методы, результаты и выводы; не содержит информации, не включенной в статью; написана на простом языке и понятна сне только специалистам, но и широкой аудитории; использует язык оригинальной статьи, часто в более упрощенной форме для более широкого читателя; не содержит ссылок; в журналах аннотации располагаются в начале текста» (21).
(1) Описательные аннотации Описательные аннотации обычно используются для статей по
гуманитарным и социальным наукам или для эссе по психологии. Этот тип аннотации обычно очень короткий (50–100 слов). Большинство описательных рефератов имеют некоторые общие ключевые части: история вопроса, цель, особый интерес / направленность статьи, обзор содержимого (не всегда прилагается).
(2) Информативные аннотации Информативные аннотации обычно состоят из 200 слов. Обычно
используются для научно-технических статей. Большинство информативных рефератов также имеют общие ключевые части. Каждая из этих частей может состоять из 1-2 предложений. Части включают: историю вопроса, цель исследования, используемый метод, выводы / результаты, заключение (20, 30).
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ОБРАЗЦЫ АННОТАЦИЙ Образец описательной аннотации
Abstract (Stevenson, 2004) Key Parts
The opportunity to design and deliver short programs on referencing and avoiding plagiarism for transnational UniSA students has confirmed the necessity of combating both the ‘all-plagiarism-is-cheating’ reaction and the ‘just-give-them-a-referencing-guide’ response. The notion of referencing is but the tip of a particularly large and intricate iceberg. Consequently, teaching referencing is not adequate in educating students to avoid plagiarism. In this presentation, I will use the transnational teaching experience to highlight what educating to avoid plagiarism entails.
Key parts: background purpose and aim
particular focus of paper (30).
(2) Образец информативной аннотации
Metalinguistic awareness contributes to effective writing at university. Writing is a meaning-making process where linguistic, cognitive, social and creative factors are at play. University students need to master the skills of academic writing not only for getting their degree but also for their future career. It is also significant for lecturers to know who our students are, how they think and how we can best assist them. This study examines first-year undergraduate Australian and international engineering students as writers of academic texts in a multicultural setting at the University of Adelaide. A questionnaire and interviews were used to collect data about students’ level of metalinguistic awareness, their attitudes toward, expectations for, assumptions about and motivation for writing. The preliminary results of the research show that students from different cultures initially have different concepts about the academic genres and handle writing with different learning and writing styles, but those with a more developed metalanguage are more confident and motivated. The conclusion can also be drawn that students’ level of motivation for academic writing positively correlates with their opinion
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about themselves as writers. Following an in-depth multi-dimensional analysis of preliminary research results, some recommendations for writing instruction will also be presented (30).
Key Parts: background purpose and aim methods results conclusions (30).
Образец 3
Applications of Solar Energy: History, Sociology and last Trends in Investigation
Debrayan Bravo Hidalgo , Reinier Jiménez Borges, Yarelis Valdivia
Nodal3
Abstract
Introduction: The increase in global energy demand, environmental problems and geopolitical tensions due to the control of finite conventional energy resources; these are reasons that have currently focused the attention of scientists on the applications of solar energy. The objective of this contribution is to reflect the trends in research regarding applications of solar energy. The materials and methods used in this investigation consisted of a search and bibliometric analysis carried out in the academic directory Scopus. A group of publications was detected under specific search criteria. The information detected was processed with text mining elements in the visualization software and bibliometric map exploration of VOSviewer science. The article dead sections, records of the first applications of solar energy, the social environment of solar energy applications, the first scientific meetings of global connotation in this subject, and bibliometrics of scientific activity focused on the applications of solar energy in the 21st century. As a result of the research, a sociological and anthropological vision of the man / energy interaction is exposed; This complements lines of research such as sustainable production and consumption, energy management and climate change.
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Conclusions: The trend in these investigations today, is to growth, and are focused on: heating and cooling of buildings (30).
Образец 4. Структурированная аннотация
Abstract
Aims. Growing evidence suggests that poor sleep health is associated with cardiovascular risk. However, research in this area often relies upon recollection dependent questionnaires or diaries. Accelerometers provide an alternative tool for measuring sleep parameters objectively. This study examines the association between wrist-worn accelerometer-derived sleep onset timing and cardiovascular disease (CVD).
Methods and results. We derived sleep onset and waking up time from accelerometer data collected from 103 712 UK Biobank participants over a period of 7 days. From this, we examined the association between sleep onset timing and CVD incidence using a series of Cox proportional hazards models. A total of 3172 cases of CVD were reported during a mean follow-up period of 5.7 (±0.49) years. An ageand sex-controlled base analysis found that sleep onset time of 10:00 p.m.–10:59 p.m. was associated with the lowest CVD incidence. An additional model, controlling for sleep duration, sleep irregularity, and established CVD risk factors, did not attenuate this association, producing hazard
ratios of 1.24 (95% confidence interval, 1.10–1.39; P < 0.005), 1.12 (1.01– 1.25; P¼0.04), and 1.25 (1.02–1.52; P¼0.03) for sleep onset <10:00 p.m., 11:00 p.m.–11:59 p.m., and >_12:00 a.m., respectively, compared to 10:00 p.m.–10:59 p.m. Importantly, sensitivity analyses revealed this association with increased CVD risk was stronger in females, with only sleep onset <10:00 p.m. significant for males.
Conclusions. Our findings suggest the possibility of a relationship between sleep onset timing and risk of developing CVD, particularly for women. We also demonstrate the potential utility of collecting information about sleep parameters via accelerometry-capable wearable devices, which may serve as novel cardiovascular risk indicators. Accelerometer-derived sleep onset timing and cardiovascular disease incidence: a UK Biobank cohort study (27).
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РЕФЕРИРОВАНИЕ ГАЗЕТНЫХ СТАТЕЙ
В процессе обучения реферативному переводу также используется такой виды работы, как реферирование газетных статей, что также требует извлечения основной информации из текста, отсекания второстепенной информации, структурно-семантическую переработку и создание собственного вторичного текста на основе имеющегося текста, принадлежащего к публицистическому стилю. Данный вид реферирования также востребован: в связи с огромным потоком информации рефераты публицистических статей дают возможность кратко представить новость или информацию на другом языке.
При этом данные виды реферирования могут иметь различный объем от сокращения примерно на треть статьи до сокращения до одного абзаца.
План и вводные фразы для более полного реферирования
(newspaper article rendering, newspaper article summary):
“HOW TO RENDER A NEWSPAPER ARTICLE
A rendering is a text based on the notional compression of the original with the aim of presenting its general matter. The material in a rendering is presented from the point of view of the author of the original and does not include any elements of interpretation or evaluation.
Basic principles to follow when making a successful rendering:
- you have to develop your power of judgment, so that you may be able to decide rightly what must be expressed and what must be suppressed;
- facts should be expressed as plain statements, with constant reference to the author of the passage;
- try to avoid evaluative words and phrases in the body of the rendering, keep them for expressing your own opinion. Figurative language is in most cases unsuitable;
- don’t retell the article.
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STRUCTURE of rendering is usually the following:
I. Introduction, where you provide all necessary background information such
as the headline, the source of the article (when and where it was published), the author.
The headline of the article is .../The article is headlined ... /The headline reads…/The article runs under the headline…
The author of the article is…/The article is written by…
It is published in …/The article is taken from the newspaper...
II. Main body, where the central idea is revealed and the summary of the article (about 10 sentences) is presented (the main problems; minor problems; important figures, names, quotes etc.; peculiarities of the article; conclusion the author comes to). Find the answers to the major questions: What? Where? When? Why? How?
How to summarize successfully
- Preview the article, skimming headings and first sentences; clarify any difficult terms with a dictionary or glossary.
- Read the opening and closing paragraphs. - Read the article at least twice.
- Isolate each important point as it occurs in the article and write it down in a complete sentence.
- State the thesis of the article in one sentence.
- Note how ideas are related to each other – comparison/contrast, cause-effect relationships, problem-solution patterns.
- Write your summary by reconstructing the author’s argument from your list of important ideas; draw attention to the relationships among ideas by using transitional phrases (nevertheless, however, in contrast).
Use the following expressions to make a summary
The article is about…/The article is devoted to …/The main idea of the article is…/The article deals with…/The article touches upon…/The purpose of the article is to give the reader some information on…/The aim
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of the article is to provide the reader with some material (data) on…/The key-tone of the article is …
The editorial is sharply critical of...
The article strongly denounces …
A full-page analytical article surveys the situation in ….
The author starts by telling the reader that…
The article opens with the description of …
The author writes (states, stresses, thinks, claims, discusses, points out, emphasizes, strongly believes that… dwells on, outlines smth, draws the reader’s attention to, gives priority to…
The author links this idea up with /is confident that…/is (not) inclined to think that.../pin-points some opinion/ recalls that /firmly rejects the idea of /returns to the problem of /expresses the hope that /evaluates the significance of /finds it significant that /finds a good deal to say in support of /has made a very interesting point there (raised a very interesting problem) /begins (concludes) by stressing (stating, warning, calling upon) /expresses alarm (concern, disappointment (at, over), the belief, the conviction, the hope, the opinion, the view) that /approves, disapproves of smth. /doubts whether /brings smth. into focus /reflects and interprets events/makes smth. clear /makes reference to smth. /raises a question /provides the main topic for comment
The article describes…
According to the article…
Further the author reports (says)…
The article goes on to say that…
The editorial goes on to consider such aspects as …
The article also has a word about...
The article highlights the consequences of...
The article looks at some aspects ..., reflects on the possible results,
consequences...
I want to single out the key points on which the article is based. Let’s look through the text for figures, dates (or data) which are very
important for the general understanding the problem discussed.
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