Лингвистика текста и переводческое реферирование. Учебное пособие

In terms of personality traits, research has shown that problematic binge-watching appears to be associated with low conscientiousness (characterised by being impulsive, careless and disorganised) and high neuroticism (characterised by being anxious and prone to negative emotions). We see these types of associations in addictive behaviours more generally.

Breaking the habit

If you want to cut down on the number of episodes you watch in one sitting, my golden rule is to stop watching mid-way through an episode. It’s really hard to stop watching at the end of an episode as so often the show ends with a cliff-hanger.

I also suggest setting realistic daily limits. For me, it’s 2.5 hours if I have work the next day, or up to five hours if I don’t. And only start watching as a reward to yourself after you’ve done everything you need to in terms of work and social obligations.

Remember, the difference between a healthy enthusiasm and an addiction is that the former adds to your life, whereas the latter detracts from it. If you feel binge-watching is taking over your life, you should seek a referral from your GP to see a clinical psychologist. Most addictions are symptomatic of other underlying problems (24).

ТЕКСТ 13

Задание 1. Сделайте реферативный перевод данной статьи.

Floods are going to get worse: we need to start preparing for them now

For many, 2021 was the year of the flood. From Canada to India, and across western Europe and Australia, this year’s deluges have led to hundreds of deaths, enormous financial costs and immeasurable suffering.

Research by myself and others on flood risk around the world shows how changing our perspective on floods can help us avoid disasters. No matter how much rain falls, flood disasters happen because of decisions that put people and places in harm’s way – and they can be averted.

For example, the southern part of the province of British Columbia in Canada has a lengthy history of101floods and landslides. Deluges in

November killed at least four people, washed away highways and forced towns to evacuate.

The excessive rain that caused this was most likely exacerbated by human-driven climate change, but its effects were made far worse by widespread deforestation, as well as the building of infrastructure on floodplains and even in a drained lake.

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The 2018 floods in Kerala, in southern India, were also linked to deforestation and poor city planning, with increasing urban development a contributor to the floods in the region this year.

And in western Europe, many places hit by rising water in July 2021

– such as the town of Altena in Germany – were known to be at high flood risk thanks to floods over past decades and centuries. Despite a flood alert system forecasting heavy rain days in advance, this information was never translated into action.

Each of these tragic situations, however, could have been prevented from becoming a disaster by taking simple measures to reduce risk before storms strike: measures like planning buildings on safer, higher land, improving forest and river management, reducing poverty and providing relevant safety education.

How to reduce risk

In 1970, a cyclone tore through Bangladesh, causing hundreds of thousands of deaths. Another cyclone in 1991 killed over 100,000 people. But in subsequent decades concerted efforts by governments and local leaders focused on risk awareness, livelihood resilience and evacuation procedures – these measures reduced the death toll across the country to just dozens when cyclones struck in 2020 and 2021.

Similar work saved thousands during hurricanes in Texas. In 1900, a hurricane passing through the city of Galveston left at least 6,000 bodies in its wake. But more recently, Tropical Storm Allison in 2001, Hurricane Rita in 2005, Hurricane Ike in 2008 and Hurricane Harvey in 2017 each led to a much smaller loss of life.

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For Rita, over 80% of Texas’ 119 fatalities were attributed to poorly managed evacuation procedures. Similarly, despite record rainfall during Harvey, the hurricane’s destruction was largely the result of Texans covering floodable areas with buildings, without preparing citizens for what to do when floods hit.

Dealing with water

As climate change worsens, it’s projected that tropical cyclones – and the floods they cause – will become less frequent but more intense. The consequences of future storms depend on our actions now. If fewer storms mean that our preparation for them becomes slapdash, then disasters will be worse.

We can see this phenomenon at work when people build floodrelated structures like dikes, levees and dams. Since they create a barrier between water and floodable areas, people often assume that those areas are safe to build on and that they don’t need to worry about flood risk. Indeed, the structures get rid of many smaller floods. But when large floods inevitably occur and a river or ocean reclaims its territories, devastation is equally inevitable.

The history of New Orleans offers a classic example. Around half of the city currently lies below sea level, and records of city flooding from the Mississippi River date back over a quarter of a millennium. Plus, New Orleans has always been prone to storms, facing Hurricane Betsy in 1965 and Hurricane Camille in 1969.

In July 2004, the Hurricane Pam training exercise for emergency officials demonstrated how ill-prepared the city was for a direct hurricane hit: especially when it came to hospital evacuation, search-and-rescue efforts, debris removal and temporary shelters. Tragically, this scenario was recreated in real life when Hurricane Katrina tore through the city in 2005. Levees breached, evacuation and sheltering systems were chaotic, and people drowned while on the phone awaiting rescue.

Flood-prone cities are often “protected” by flood “defences”, which have served mainly to encourage housing and business development on floodable land such as in London and Singapore. Both cities sit upstream

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from vast defences which reduce the numbers of small floods, allowing construction of huge financial centres on floodplains.

But when, not if, a flood exceeds a defence’s capabilities, the lack of preparation will be apparent in the ensuing disaster. Warning systems, which are highly capable of issuing accurate flood alerts, exist – but as in this year’s floods in Germany, these won’t be effective without preparing populations for evacuation.

Rather than constructing dams, the Canadian city of Toronto opted to move buildings out of floodplains after Hurricane Hazel slashed a path through the city in 1954, killing at least 81 people.

Instead of rebuilding flood-ravaged residential streets, Toronto turned them into nature reserves to keep buildings out and water in. City planners then integrated the reserves into the expanding city by creating walking and cycling pathways alongside them. Now, these have become recreational and commuting routes, environmental education sites and a haven for wildlife.

When Hurricanes Isabel in 2003 and Sandy in 2012 again transformed Toronto’s watercourses into raging torrents, its floodplains were bare of buildings. Fallen trees littered mud-slicked paths, transportation and power was disrupted. But there was only one fatality. Let’s use this knowledge and wisdom to prepare other towns and cities for handling future floods (24).

ТЕКСТ 14.

Задание 1. Сделайте реферативный перевод данной статьи.

How children are being targeted with hidden ads on social media

Have you ever accidentally clicked on an advert while scrolling on social media because you didn’t realise that’s what it was? This is what advertisers call “content marketing”.

Using funny memes, insider-driven stories or inspirational content, this type of advertising disguises its commercial nature. Notably, it features no call to action, no “buy this, it’s great!”. There isn’t even an obvious

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connection to the product or the service being advertised. Anything works so long as it promotes positive emotions in the consumer.

Stealth advertising is of course nothing new. Product placement has been around since the mid-1890s – it is as old as the moving image itself.

But the combination of content marketing and social media creates something far more powerful. And when the product being sold is addictive, or potentially dangerous, the impact on the most vulnerable audiences is alarming.

Minimal engagement

As a brand, if you succeed in building up positive emotional associations in the minds of your consumers, you won’t need to drive a hard sale for your product. In fact, hard sales and direct calls to action do the opposite. Research has shown how they result in consumers constructing raising mental defences as they realise they’re being sold to.

To avoid this, content marketing ads are designed to trigger as little cognitive engagement as possible. Instead they are designed to create a warm fuzzy feeling or to make their audience giggle.

This way, a brand turns from a market crier to a friendly pal. Which, in the age of social media, is a pal gaining followers. As these followers like, comment on and share any ad, it gains momentum – the holy grail, for marketers, being to see it go viral.

Would you like or share a supermarket advert saying, “Chicken fillet this week only £2.99”? Probably not. But imagine you see a funny post like the one from Aldi shown below, which references the Netflix series Squid Game.

If you’ve seen the show, you will get the inside joke and feel like part of the in-crowd. So, you share it, showing others that you get it. It doesn’t matter to you that the post is from Aldi –- you might not even have noticed. But somewhere in your brain (and in the brains of your network and your network’s network), a synapse fires, a new connection has started to build up: Aldi is one of the cool kids.

Mental defences

So far so harmless? Not quite. Not all brands have the same incentives. While some brands sell chicken, others sell addictive,

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potentially dangerous products – from alcohol to gambling – and for them, content marketing is as attractive as sheep’s clothing is to a wolf.

Take gambling brands. In a recent study, we analysed more than 888,000 Twitter gambling adverts. We found that 40% were content marketing. Coming back to those natural mental defences that we build up immediately and automatically when we detect an ad – if the ad’s telling us to gamble, the defence will be even higher. So content marketing is more sneakily effective.

But there is one target audience for whom the effects can be disastrous. Under-25s – including children below the legal gambling age – are not so good at putting up mental defences. And this is the group that, according to our research, engages – likes, shares, follows – the most with gambling content marketing on Twitter.

Children have fewer skills for recognising advertising than adults – they just don’t have the experience. And 17-24 year olds are more prone to process advertising affectively because, as neuroscientific research confirms, their brain structure is undergoing dramatic changes and the neocortex (where rational decisions are made) is in upheaval.

When presented with content marketing, it is nearly impossible for children to immediately recognise the posts’ persuasive intent. And while young adults might be able to recognise that the posts are advertising, they find it much harder than older people to resist being persuaded. So neither group is likely to make the mental counter arguments needed to resist being taken in by content marketing.

For our new study, we worked with 650 participants and compared the reactions of 11 to 16-year-olds, 17 to 24-year-olds, and those over 25 to gambling content marketing on Twitter. We measured both whether their reactions were positive or negative and the intensity of the emotion.

Not surprisingly, gambling content marketing was much more appealing to all three groups than ads with a clear call to action. But the appeal of content marketing to children and young persons simply went through the roof – they found gambling content marketing posts nearly four times more appealing than those over 25.

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This effect was even stronger for esports bets – which have an almost inherent appeal to children, teens and young adults, because children and young people love games. This is alarming when you consider that twothirds of all UK-based Twitter followers of gambling accounts are under 25 years old. They may come for the banter, but because they are young and their brains make them impulsive, they could well stay for the gambling addiction.

What makes this even more serious is that the Advertising Standards Authority won’t regulate content marketing – it will only regulate where there is a mention of the product or service, which is exactly what turns consumers off (24).

ТЕКСТ 15

Задание 1. Сделайте реферативный перевод данной статьи.

How uncertainty can impair our ability to make rational decisions – new research

We make decisions every day, many of which are so straightforward that we hardly notice we are making them. But we tend to struggle when faced with decisions that have uncertain outcomes, such as during the pandemic. Cognitive scientists have long been interested in understanding how people make such uncertain decisions. Now our new research, published in the journal JAMA Network Open, gives a clue.

Scientists typically test decision-making under uncertainty using “probabilistic tasks”, in which study participants can choose from two or more options, each with a specific probability of providing a reward (usually points or money). This could be a game, for example, in which you have to choose between a picture of an apple or a banana on a computer screen. The apple might be programmed to give you points 80% of the time while the banana will do so 20% of the time, but during the game the probabilities can change. You would not be aware of the probabilities at any given time, however – leading to uncertainty. Your task would be to find out which option is more rewarding.

Humans generally use two decision-making strategies when faced with uncertainty: exploitation and107exploration. Exploitation involves

frequently choosing options that are familiar and provide a higher certainty of reward. Exploration involves trying out choices that are unfamiliar. In an uncertain and changing environment, it is thought that the best strategy is to flexibly alternate between exploration and exploitation.

Whether people explore or exploit depends on the situation at hand. When under time pressure, people are more likely to repeat old choices and explore less.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

A common symptom of many psychiatric disorders is difficulty in coping with uncertainty. People suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), in particular, feel incredibly uncertain about their thoughts, feelings and actions, and may feel anxious. They may feel doubtful over whether they counted the number of tiles accurately, or whether they scrubbed their hands thoroughly enough.

In our study, we demonstrate that people with OCD struggle to make decisions when they are uncertain. We asked 50 teenagers with OCD and 53 teenagers without OCD to complete a probabilistic task, in which the probabilities associated with each option would reverse halfway through the task (for example the apple picture would go from giving a reward 80% of the time to 20% of the time). The ideal strategy would be to exploit the more rewarding choice early on (apple), but then engage in exploration (pick banana) once you’ve noticed a shift in how often points are offered.

Teenagers with OCD did not do this, however. Across the task, they displayed a great deal of exploration of choices. They showed a tendency to switch choices and select the less rewarding choice more often than teenagers without OCD. Fascinatingly, when teenagers with OCD performed another task which was not probabilistic and didn’t trigger uncertainty, they showed no problems with decision-making.

Uncertainty caused by the probabilistic task may have caused teenagers with OCD to doubt their decisions and feel the need to “check” the less rewarding choice frequently. This exploration could be a strategy for them to try to seek out information until they feel certain. Intolerance of uncertainty is a plausible reason for why people with OCD feel compelled to check items like locks, stoves and switches in daily life.

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The results also suggest that many people may start to explore in this way if they are feeling uncertain enough.

Pandemic uncertainty

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a great deal of uncertainty for everyone, which in turn seems to have increased our tendency for exploration in the form of information-seeking. A study has shown that perceived uncertainty has led to people seeking more information about COVID via social networking apps and online news media.

On the one hand, this has led to more preventative actions, such as increased hand washing and mask wearing, which can reduce uncertainty and keep people safe. On the other hand, this information-seeking may not be entirely beneficial. A recent study has shown that since the onset of the pandemic, otherwise healthy people are reporting more obsessivecompulsive symptoms, such as constantly checking for new information to reduce feelings of pandemic-induced uncertainty.

Excessive information-seeking during this period can lead to high levels of stress. We know from previous research that it can eventually lead to burnout and avoidance of information altogether, leaving people less informed about government guidelines, safety measures and COVID19 treatment advances.

Persistent stress from overexposure to distressing news may also cause changes in key brain areas such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, which are responsible for memory and cognition. This can in turn result in reduced rational decision-making, leading us to rely more on emotions. This could make us susceptible to believing misinformation and engaging in irrational behaviours, such as hoarding toilet paper.

Luckily, there are ways to combat pandemic uncertainty by trusting some of the information you’ve already gathered and that seems consistent over time, such as the benefits of masks and vaccines. If you are finding it difficult to cope without frequently checking the news and social media for reassurance, experts recommend setting a timer on social media use, logging out of accounts temporarily, and seeking out more positive, nonpandemic related content online. 109

There are even evidence-based methods to improving your decisionmaking under uncertainty, including playing games designed to train your brain, getting good sleep and nutrition, and having social support (24).

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7. Зарудный, Ф. В. Реф. ст.: Идальго Д. Б., Борхес Р. Х., Вальдивия Нодаль Я. Применение солнечной энергии: история, социология и последние тенденции в исследованиях [Текст] / Ф. В. Зарудный // Социальные и гуманитарные науки. Отечественная и зарубежная литература. Сер. 11: Социология. – 2021. – № 2. – С. 166– 170. 8. Ивановский, Б. Г. Реф. ст. Меры Евросоюза по совершенствованию системы здравоохранения //Социальные и гуманитарные науки: Отечественная и зарубежная литература. Сер. 2. Экономика: Реферативный журнал. – 2020. 04.031. Режим доступа: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/2020-04-031-mery-evrosoyuza-po-

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