3. Personification

Personification is a variety of metaphor, attributing human properties to lifeless objects, mostly to abstract notions such as thoughts, intentions, emotions, seasons of the year, or animals.

Personification is often represented grammatically by the choice of masculine or feminine pronouns for the names of inanimate objects, or by capitalization of these words.

Personification The sun shone brightly down on me as if she was shining for me alone.

Personifications are most often used in poetry.

Personification in poetry Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are! (Jane Taylor) No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing hours with flying feet. (Byron) How soon hath Time, the subtle thief of youth, Stolen on his wings my three and twentieth year! (Milton)

4. Allusion

Allusion is a special variety of metaphor, an indirect reference to some historical or literary fact commonly known. The frequently used sources for allusions are the Bible and mythology. The effect of allusion can be achieved only if facts alluded to are known to the reader.

Allusion Пить или не пить (Быть или не быть) The United Colors of Benetton (The United States of America) Чайник закипает, Чашечка блестит, Муха на варенье В гости к нам летит. Twinkle, twinkle, little bat, How I wonder what you’re at! Up above the world you fly Like a tea-tray in the sky! Травка зеленеет, Солнышко блестит Ласточка весною В сени к нам летит. (А.Н. Плещеев) Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are Up above the world so high Like a diamond in the sky. (Jane Taylor)

5. Metonymy

Metonymy is based on contiguity of notions, not on resemblance. It is applying the name of an object to another object in some way connected with the first one. There is an objectively existing relationship between the object named and the object implied.

Metonymy The kettle is boiling. The gallery applauded. Вся школа пришла на собрание. Силы порядка пришли и арестовали преступника.

Metonymic relations are varied in character:

1) the result may stand for the cause (The fish desperately takes the death);

2) the cause may stand for the result (The writer lives by his pen only);

3) a symbol may stand for an object signified (“brain drain”);

4) a characteristic feature may stand for its bearer (She turned round and took a long look at her grandmother’s blackness);

5) the instrument may stands for the action (Countrymen, give me your ears!);

6) the container may stand for the thing contained or vise versa (The kettle boils);

7) an abstract noun may stand for a concrete noun (Labour demonstrated in the streets);

8) the material may stand for the thing made of it (There was a shower of steel on the trenches);

9) the name of the creator may stand for his creation (We bougnt two Rembrands).