2395

KANDA

OCHANOMIZ

NDAMACHI

SHINJUKU

NAKANO

S ASAGAYA

OGIKUBO

T NISHIOGIKU

BO

A MITAKA

MUSASHISAK

T AI

I HIGASHIKO-

KUNITACHI

O TACHIKAWA

N HINO

TOYOTA

HACHIOJI

NISHIHACHIOJI

Рис.16

99

short, JNR has arrangement with the Tokyo Power Co. in Tsurumi for additional supply.

The power consumption by commuter trains per day in about 2,000,000 kilowatt hours, and the passenger kilometerage is 112,000,000 per day.

This means that the power consumption per 1,000 passenger km is 17.8 kilowatt hours. The power coat thus is only 56.70 yen per 1,000 passenger km.

3.2 Power consumption: Present and Future

The transport demand for commuter service in Tokyo and its vicinity is expected to increase year after year. To cope with this increase, JHR has plans to build additional tracks, put in a longer trains and shorten the headway. The maximum load capacity of JNR-owned plants is expected to reach about

480,000 kilowatts in 1971. Hence, plants are under contemplation to put in two additional 25,000-kw water wheel generators for the Ojiya Plant and boost the power generation of the Kawasaki Thermal Plant by 75,000 kw.

4. Future Plans for Urban Traffic

100

Takasaki

Utsunomiya Mito

New Educational Town

New Town

New International Airport

Special Industrial Promoting

Area

Tokyo

Single track section

Double track section

More than 4-track section

Super high speed commuter traffic in the urban area of Tokyo

Рис.18

102

PART TWO

CLASSIC CARS

Текст 35

FORD

The founding of the Ford Motor Company was to have an importance in the field of motor cars, not only from the point of view of mass production, but above all because it highlighted, right from its beginning, the philosophy of the car for the masses.

Along with these revolutionary ideas, Henry Ford, creator, animator, and commander of the company throughout, introduced a number of other novel concepts. In particular, he believed that not only the largest possible number of people should enjoy the products of his factory, but also that the largest number of people should share in the material benefits created by the production itself. But that is another story.

It is interesting to note that the same year of 1903 saw the birth of two companies — one in the Old World and one in the New — each representing a profoundly different technical, social, and economic evolution. On the one hand was the virtual creation of Rolls-Royce, which was to signify the standard of absolute perfection, and on the other the founding of Ford, which was to represent the opposite end of the scale — big-volume manufacture of products of low price and spartan character.

The Ford Motor Company was founded on 16th June of 1903 with a capital of $150,000. Henry Ford became Vice-president and also assumed the post of Chief Engineer and General Manager. Among the shareholders were the Dodge brothers, ex-mechanics, who had opened a workshop in Detroit after having for some years manufactured bicycles, which used ball-bearings of their own design.

The beginning was not easy. There was strong competition from such established companies as Cadillac, Oldsmobile, Reo and Packard. Ford distinguished his models in a way which was unique in those days when other manufacturers were applying names intended to impress the public with the power of their engines or with some other characteristic that would appeal to the motorist's taste. He gave them single letters. This in itself was typical of his guiding philosophy in all things — simplicity. The first Ford cars, however, did not reflect his personality; there were too many fingers in the pie, particularly of ex-craftsmen, each of whom brought his own prejudies and preferences to bear. Model 'A' of 1904 and model 'B' of 1905 fall into this category, though the latter had aesthetic merit. Model 'C' was also produced in 1905, and showed some originality; it had

103

two rear seats which could be fitted or removed at will, and suspension by full elliptical leaf springs, which was unusual at that time.

Several more two and four-cylinder models followed until, in 1906-1907 Ford produced the 'K' which was a foray into the luxury field. It was a six-cylinder machine and sold for $2,400, even though it cost much more than this to produce. It is evident that Ford was still hesitating, still not committing himself to the policy of mass manufacture. It should be said, however, that the 'K' — with its 7,040 c.c. engine, two speeds and reverse gearbox, had several virtues, including its appearance. It was distinctly comparable with the best English and French vehicles of the time.

Model 'N' was also produced in 1906 and represented Ford's first attempt to enter the mass market. Its price was as low as $600, which was the direct competition with the single-cylinder cars of other manufacturers (the 'N' was a fourcylinder). It was well accepted by the public but was not a commercial success. Ford had not yet introduced those productive techniques which were to allow him to reduce manufacturing costs so considerably, as he did with the later model 'T'. The 'N' exhibited certain typical characteristics which later were to give the name 'spider' to the 'T' — large wheels set well apart, small coachwork and a high ground clearance.

The 'R' and 'S' followed in 1907 and the beginning of 1908 and represented Ford's ranging on to his target of the ideal popular car he wished to produce. In general they were both similar to the 'N' and the same commercial policy of low price was followed with growing success. Certain technical details were improved, particularly those regarding front and rear suspension.

At last we come to 1908, the year that introduced one of the most famous cars ever, the Ford model 'T', the 'Lizzie' for million of Americans — the tin Lizzie, as it was called by rivals in its early days, until its great commercial success made such criticism ridiculous. Its official birthday was 1st October 1908. That date represented the culmination of months and months of hard work by everyone in the organization. This time the 'boss' had decided that not only would the new model be technically perfect but that it would be the product of a manufacturing and commercial organization completely geared to mass the production and volume sales.

What immediately struck the Americans who had waited for the launching of this new car with mounting curiosity was its apparent fragility. At first it appeared that thinness of the panels and the lightness of the chassis sections would make for short life and high maintenance. It was soon discovered, however, that considerable use had been made of vanadium alloy steel. Its superior strength made possible economy in the use of material which more than offset its higher cost and which, moreover, gave major advantages from the point of view of weight saving. For the first time transverse springs, both front and rear, were used on this chassis and proved very satisfactory on the terrible American roads of

104

that time. The extensive use of Steel for minor details of the car had considerable effect on its appearance — for instance, the extremely large but light mudguards, the running boards, and other parts. Innovations did not stop there. The easilyrated four-cylinder 2,880 c.c. engine (bore and stroke 95 mm. by 101 mm.) had a monoblock casting for the four cylinders, one camshaft and the valves on one side of the engine. The cylinder head was detachable, allowing easy access to valves and pistons for attention. At first the h.p. was 20 (later increased to 22), a reasonable figure in such a light car. The power/weight ratio gave excellent acceleration although top speed was only a little over 40 m.p.h., a most surprising figure, especially as the car was to remain in production until 1927 with little alteration.

The most interesting technical features were in the ignition and transmission. Ignition was by means of a simple form of flywheel magneto.

The revolutionary transmission system of the model 'T' was the work of Ford's own designers. It consisted of a simple and robust two-speed gearbox without the conventional clutch — made possible by the low maximum speed, power, and engine r.p.m. of 1,500 — which Ford had wisely insisted upon to ensure long engine life. The gear change was by foot pedal and quite foolproof.

It will be appreciated, therefore, that to drive the model 'T' a number of unusual operations were necessary. These were the direct result of Henry Ford's policy of simplification and rationalisation, but they were easy. These maneouvres were, in fact, to become a matter of habit to the millions of Americans owning a 'Lizzie', most of whom had no previous experience of driving more conventional cars.

To drive off in a model 'T' — once the engine was started — one had to press lightly on the gear pedal to disengage the transmission. It was then possible to release the handbrake, working on the rear wheels, the last few degrees of movement holding the 'clutch' out. With the brakes now off, the driver pressed the gear pedal firmly home, which engaged first gear through the 'clutch'. With the car accelerating, gentle pressure on the gear pedal engaged top gear.

Stopping the model 'T' was more simple. The brake pedal was pushed and, at the same time, the handbrake applied, which also disengaged the transmission. There were two other ways of braking, to be used only in emergency. The first was to press on the brake and gear-change pedals simultaneously, thus also engaging first gear. For even more fierce braking one pressed simultaneously the brake pedal and a third pedal, which engaged reverse gear.

The second big American motor company, General Motors – for long the largest and most powerful commercial organization in the world was founded in 1908, the result of the patient, tenacious work of another outstanding individual, William Crapo Durant. He, like Ford, had begun in the early years of the 20th century but the aims and methods of the two men were quite different. Ford was in essence a technician, with clear, precise commercial ideal stemming from a

105

real passion for the motor car. Durant was a business man who, like other of the time, had seen the future possibilities of the car and who had decided to reach the highest levels of the boom whose advent he foresaw so clearly.

Текст 36

GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION

In the early 1900's Billy Durant, grandson of a Governor of Michigan, was already a millionaire, having founded a successful handcart factory with his partner, Josiah Dallas Dart, an ex-dealer in trinkets. These two decided to convert their factory in Flint to motor car production, Durant being particularly keen to do so. Their problem was to find a farely well-known make, preferably in financial difficulties, which their assistance could turn into a financial success. Buick fitted the bill.

David Dunbar Buick was in an ex-tinsmith, also from Michigan, who, having amassed a substantial fortune from his patents on the application of enamel to cast-iron, decided to build motor cars. His prototype for a light car created interest; it had a well-balanced engine, a pleasing appearance, and certain good technical details, notably pushrod-operated overhead valves. The financial aspects of the company, however, were not equally good. The Buick Manufacturing Company, in fact, became the Buick Motor Car Company after only one year, when it accepted a contribution of new capital from the Briscoe brothers. The association with the Briscoes did not last long. When they saw the way the company's finances were going they withdrew, and Buick, in spite of his ingenious ideas and the success of the few vehicles built, found himself on the brink of bankruptcy. It was in this way that Durant, in November 1904, was able to get his hands on the Buick business. He immediately increased the company's capital from $75.000 to $300,000, and later to $500,000. He transferred the works to Flint, not to his own factory but to that of the Flint Wagon Works, another company with which he had recently become associated.

The impulse that Durant gave to the Buick business is shown by the production figures; they passed from 28 machines, in 1904, through 626 in 1905, to 2,300 in 1906. By 1908 Buick production was sufficient for Durant to consider his next step towards the motor industry throne that was clearly his ambition. Instead of buying another motor company, he set up a much higher goal — nothing less than a trust to incorporate all, or at least most of the big American motor manufacturers, a trust with the then fantastic production of 50,000 units per year.

Durant did not waste any time. He went so far as to found the new company first, with the grandiose title of International Motor Company, and then sent his emissaries to talk to the major competitors. Ford, obviously the prime

106

objective of this larger scale operation, gave a decisive "no". Reo and MaxwellBriscoe also refused. Never one to lose time up blind alleys, Durant changed his tactics at once and on 16th September 1908, founded a second company — General Motors with an initial capital of $12,500,000. This company was given the task of acquiring motor companies which found themselves in difficulty, including those manufacturing accessories.

The first companies absorbed by General Motors had already been previously incorporated by the International Motor Co. They were Dow, Ewing Automobile, Carter Car Company, and Elmore, all of minor importance and forgotten today. To these were added the Western Mott, manufacturers of axles, and Champion, of enduring sparking plug fame.

Following his plan of absorbing all the accessory-producing companies, Durant next bought the Briscoe Company (which had initially refused to join G.M.) and later made his first major acquisition — Oldsmobile — major more for its reputation than for its production record.

All these acquisitions had been made in a few months — five, to be precise — and Durant, motivated not so much by success as by the need at that stage to impress his associates, paid $245,000 in dividends to the shareholders. By now Durant had the bit between his teeth, and on 28th July, 1909 he bought Cadillac for $3,400,000.

A little later Durant conceived the most ambitious plan of his career — nothing less than the acquisition of Ford, for which 'fabulous Billy', as he had been christened by Wall Street, was prepared to pay the unprecedented sum of $8,000,000.

With Ford's refusal, Durant's star began to decline. It was typical of American high finance in those years that the absolute faith that had made almost unlimited funds available to him was quickly changed into suspicion — of his ambition and of the scale of his plans — and then into open alarm. Wall Street turned its back on him, he was asked to resign, and was substituted by Charles W. Nash. Nash had been a collaborator of Durant in the letter's Flint factory. He was made president of Buick after its purchase by Durant, and had led that company to unheard-of prosperity. It is not surprising that the shareholders saw in him someone who was capable of taking over — with a less ambitious and more realistic policy — from 'fabulous Billy'.

We might add that this was by no means the end of Durant. Five years later, (in 1915) he was once more triumphantly at the head of General Motors, thanks to his success with a new name -Chevrolet. He was finally to leave the company in 1920 when another crisis made G.M. shares fall from $400 a share to $12. Even after this he was to figure largely in the activities of other new makes

— Durant, Dort, Star and Mason — until the crisis of 1929 finally pushed him into obscurity. He died a largely forgotten man in 1947.

107

Текст 37

FERRARI 250GTO

The seven letters of the name ‘Ferrari’ (рис. 19) produce a quickening of the pulse for any car enthusiast. If you're a dedicated Ferrari fan however, just the three letters GTO are all it takes to get the adrenaline pumping. To the devoted, everything else is just a little ordinary by comparison; even the F40s, Berlinetta Boxers and 275GTBs. The GTO is THE Ferrari -and perhaps THE car of all time. Why is the GTO so special? There are several compelling reasons.

Рис. 19

Firstly, the GTO helped Ferrari win three World Championships in a row from 1962 to 1964. Yet it was a real rarity, a racer that could be driven on the road. On top of that, only 39 were ever made. That makes the 250GTO ultradesirable whichever way you care to look at it.

To understand the GTO, car enthusiasts have to realise why it was conceived. Racing during the 1950s had become very much faster and consequently more dangerous. The death of 82 people at Le Mans in 1955 was the catalyst which split top-flight racing into categories. One of these was the new grand tourer class, which required that cars should have closed coupe bodies which resembled to a large degree those of the manufacturer's road cars. A minimum of a hundred examples of each of these race cars had to be built.

By the beginning of the 1960s, Enzo Ferrari's were dominant in racing, so he took the new class very seriously. He certainly faced some stiff competition from the Aston Martin DB4 Zagato and the new Jaguar E-Type. Ferrari's competitor was the 250GT, the first volume-produced Ferrari. It used the same basic chassis as that of the 166, first seen in 1947, which provided excellent handling. However, the 250GT was not strong on all-out speed.

108