Terekhova_E_Dvustoronniy_perevod_obshchestvenn
.pdfNot to be overlooked in this category of regional schemes is APEC, the Asia Pacific Economic Conference, which held its first meeting of fifteen Pacific Rim nations in Seattle in late 1993. A sec ond conference was held in Jakarta in November 1994.
Both ASEAN and China seek good relations. For instance, Chinese PM Li Peng toured several ASEAN countries and spoke about ASEAN China cooperation. He noted that ASEAN ranks as the fifth trading partner of China and ASEAN could cooperate in infrastructure developments, technology transfer, environment pro tection, and financial coordination to resist financial speculation. China had notably contributed US$1 bn to assist Thailand in its recent financial problems. China would try to promote a joint, new and fair political and economic offer with ASEAN, he proclaimed. China also supports PM Dr Mahathir’s attempts to review the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Another major event in ASEAN China relations is the ASEAN China informal summit in Kuala Lumpur in December 97.
1 августа 1995 года в Брунее состоялся второй Асеановский региональный форум по безопасности в АТР. В нем приняли участие (It was attended by) 19 делегаций, представлявших на уровне министров иностранных дел (at the Ministerial level) страны Азии, Европы и Северной Америки, включая Евро пейский Союз, Китай, США, Японию, Россию.
14–15 декабря 1995 года в Бангкоке проходила 5 я встреча в верхах стран АСЕАН. Важным итогом встречи стало подпи сание десятью странами субрегиона договора о создании в ЮВА зоны, свободной от ядерного оружия, что рассматрива лось как важный и неотъемлемый шаг на пути реализации идеи ЗОПФАН.
Сегодня ASEAN — это региональное объединение, взяв шее себе в название географический признак, включает в себя все (или почти все: прием Камбоджи — вопрос времени) стра ны Ю В Азии от Мьянмы до Индонезии.
Являясь одним из инициаторов создания АСЕАН и ее гео графическим центром, Малайзия всегда оставалась и остается активным участником организации, выступая с рядом плодо
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творных инициатив, направленных на укрепление региональ ного сотрудничества в экономической и политической сферах и поддержание безопасности и стабильности в ЮВА.
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Some of the nations of Southeast Asia sought to organize them selves into an economic and trading bloc. The first of these experi ments was ASA, the first Association of Southeast Asian Nations, founded in July 1961. Its members were Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. A month later saw the establishment of Maphilindo with its membership (as the name suggests) made up of Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia. A U.S. sponsored and led security community, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, or SEATO, was established in the 1950s during the “pactomania” period. This faded away, however, in the aftermath of the Vietnam War, even though the United States remains committed by treaty to some of its members, such as Thailand. All of these organizations were ill fated; but ASEAN, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations founded in 1967, has managed to last for more than a quarter of a century with the support of its six members—Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Asserting that this is a region al organization of great strength, however, would be clearly wrong. (from Gerald L. Houseman America and the Pacific Rim, 1995).
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Третье десятилетие деятельности АСЕАН — это инициати ва в вопросах обеспечения региональной в масштабах всей
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ЮВА безопасности и превращение АСЕАН в инициирующий фактор создания системы безопасности в АТР. В этот период АСЕАН действует в качественно новых международных усло виях прекращения «холодной войны», исчезновения совет ской и вьетнамской угрозы в регионе, урегулирования камбо джийского конфликта, который прежде консолидировал АСЕАН. Ассоциация в целом спокойно пережила окончание «холодной войны» и крах двухполюсного мира прежде всего потому, что ей удалось дистанцироваться от борьбы двух сис тем и играть «свою игру».
Третье десятилетие деятельности АСЕАН — это выход Ассоциации за рамки региона ЮВА и превращение ее в важный политический и экономический фактор в АТР. Оп ределился и новый стимул к поддержанию асеановского единства. В заключительном документе Сингапурской встречи в верхах в январе 1992 года, в год 25 летия АСЕАН, указывается на необходимость защиты коллективных инте ресов АСЕАН. В ответ на создание крупных и мощных эко номических группировок развитых стран планировалось образовать асеановскую зону свободной торговли — АФТА, создать форум для обсуждения проблем безопасности в ре гионе ввиду крупных перемен в мире после распада СССР,
активизировать связи с Европой и построить недостающее звено в своем экономическом треугольнике сотрудничест ва: «АФТА — НАФТА, АФТА — Япония, АФТА — ЕС», рас ширить Ассоциацию за счет новых членов из ЮВА, создать безъядерную зону в регионе и приглушить конфликт вокруг архипелага Спратли (the Spratlys conflict). И чрезвычайно важно, что все эти процессы брали под свой контроль главы государств и правительств АСЕАН, так как отныне их встре чи должны были проходить на регулярной основе раз в три года.
Из доклада проф. МГИМО Н.П. Малетина на международной конференции 1997 г.
по случаю 30-летия АСЕАН
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УПРАЖНЕНИЕ 40
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Q.: В 1967 году, когда была создана АСЕАН и в ее состав входило лишь пять стран, мало кто знал о ней или серьезно воспринимал ее. АСЕАН — специфическая и в настоящее время наиболее эффективная во всем третьем мире региональная организация, которую характеризуют динамичное развитие и позитивный вклад в упрочение мира, стабильности и сотрудничества в ЮВА, АТР и во всем мире. Каковы основные достижения АСЕАН за весь период ее существования?
A.: ASEAN is a great success. It has been amply demonstrated by the way it is courted by the Great Powers; by its successful launching of various initiatives, AFTA (or ASEAN Free Trade Area), ARF (ASEAN Regional Forum), ASEM (Asia Europe Meeting), its key role in APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation); by its productive dialogue relationships with various cooperation partners, e.g. EU; by many applications from various countries to join both ASEAN and the related initiatives, e.g., ARF, ASEM.
Q.: Какова основная цель деятельности АСЕАН с момента ее существования?
A.: Since its establishment, ASEAN’s activities have been aimed at establishing political stability as a prerequisite for econom ic development of the region.
Q.: В деятельности Ассоциации стран Юго-Восточной Азии за тридцать лет ее существования (1967–1997) можно условно выделить три этапа: (1) 1967–1976 гг.; (2) с 1977 г. до конца 80-х гг.; (3) c конца 80-х гг. до настоящего времени. С чем связано такое деление?
A. These stages are associated with political and economic situa tion in ASEAN and the goals the member states had to reach as a bloc.
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Q.: Что характеризовало страны АСЕАН на момент создания ассоциации?
A.: I should emphasize that the strongest tendency within this bloc has been for nations to go their own way economically, polit ically, and militarily. This was most obvious during the early years of ASEAN, from 1967 to roughly 1976, when the organization seemed to be operating or, more precisely, not at all operating, in a more or less dormant phase. Many observers predicted a demise for ASEAN at that time. A key event in the establishment of ASEAN in 1967 was the change of government in Indonesia. It was in fact this government that solicited the nations who eventu ally became members to work in favor of the idea of regional cooperation.
Q.: В этот период США играли доминирующую роль в данном регионе. Шла война во Вьетнаме, а близлежащие территории стали ареной военного присутствия американских воздушных, морских и наземных сил. Военные базы на Филиппинах, в Таиланде и на многих прилегающих к ним островах Тихого океана были центром развертывания активных крупномасштабных операций, проводимых США. Как повлияло военное присутствие американцев в этом регионе на страны АСЕАН?
A.: The effect of this presence may simply have inhibited any local development of initiatives, since it probably encouraged ASEAN members to free ride on the strength and activism of the Americans. Only with the forced withdrawal of the United States from Vietnam in 1975 did the leaders of the ASEAN group appear motivated to reassess the reasons for their union and the possible future direction it could take. This marked a new period for ASEAN, lasting until 1987, in which attempts were made to revital ize group efforts. This was not a wholly successful period by any means; but the new hopes gained by the great economic perform ances of Malaysia and Singapore were undoubtedly important in adding stimulus to these efforts.
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MALAYSIA’S HISTORY
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•Introduction
•Early Settlement
•Hindu-Buddhist Influences.
•Islamisation and the Melaka Sultanate
•European Penetration and Colonialism.
•The Japanese Conquest and Its Aftermath
•Malayan Independence.
•Towards Malaysia
•Malaysia, 1963 — present day
1. Introduction
The course of Malaysian history has been determined by its strategic position at one of the world’s major crossroads, its tropical climate, the surrounding environment and the regime of the North East and South West monsoons.
Its position and other geographical circumstances made the country a natural meeting place for traders from the East and the West. The lush tropical forest and the abundance of life existing in it and in the surrounding water made Malaysia an easy place for the settlement and sustenance of small, self supporting human commu nities. At the same time the thick jungle and mountainous terrain of the interior inhibited communication, while the absence of broad, flood phoned river valleys and deltas precluded the development of elaborate systems of water control such as those upon which the civi lizations of Java and the Southeast Asian mainland came to be based. In contrast Malaysia’s development has come from the sea. Its inhab itants quickly acquired a skill and reputation as sailors and navigators. Subsequent trading contacts have been responsible for the waves of outside influences, which have modified their way of life.
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2. Early Settlement
Nature’s bounty no doubt accounts for the fact that Malaysia was one of the earliest homes of Man. Stone implements found at Lenggong in Perak and the remarkable finds in the Niah Cave of Sarawak provide evidence for this.
The earliest of the present day inhabitants of Malaysia are the orang asli of the Peninsula and people such as the Penan of Sarawak and the Rungus of Sabah, many of whom still pursue a largely nomadic way of life. Their presence in the country probably dates back to over 5000 years. These early settlers were probably the pio neers of the movement of peoples southwards from China and Tibet through Mainland Southeast Asia and the Malay Peninsula to the Indonesian Archipelago and beyond. The next arrivals to the coun try, the Malays, represented the second and third wave of this move ment.
The first Malay settlers (the Proto Malays) had probably estab lished themselves here by 1000 BC. This movements were followed by other waves of immigrants (the Deutero Malays) over the next few centuries, who came equipped with more advanced farming techniques and new knowledge of metals. The Malay peoples also spread out into the islands of the archipelago, settling down into small self contained communities which gave rise to the complex and variegated ethnic pattern of Malaysia and Indonesia today. The Malays of the Peninsula had their closest affinities with the Malays of Sumatra, and for centuries the Straits of Melaka did not form a dividing line between two nations but served as a corridor linking different parts of the same family. Until recent times the Malays and Malay related inhabitants of the area remained politically fragment ed, but they shared a common culture. Together with the orang asli they make up the indigenous peoples of Malaysia today, and are classified as “sons of the soil” or Bumiputera. Despite the consider able differences between the various Bumiputera groups, they all share certain characteristics which are the hallmarks of the indige nous culture of Southeast Asia. These characteristics are rooted in an agrarian maritime economy and reflected in a village society
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where leadership was largely through consensus and those attitudes were informed by a belief in an all pervasive spiritual world. Although the culture of the Malays in particular came to be overlaid by Hiduism and then prevaded by Islam, elements of this basic cul ture still persist.
3. Hindu-Buddhist Influences
A new phase in the historical development of the inhabitants of Malaysia began around the first century BC with the establishment of regular trading contacts with the world beyond Southeast Asia, specifically China and the sub continent of India. Although Chinese contacts started as early as, if not predating those of India, it was the Hindu and Buddhist elements of Indian culture which made a major impact on the region. Over a period of a thousand years these influences gradually made themselves be felt, and have left their marks in the native language, literature and social custom. During this Hindu Buddhist period which was marked by a tremen dous growth in the East West trade, the shadowy outlines of the first political units emerged in the Peninsula and in Kalimantan. However, for the greater part of this time the inhabitants of the area were subjected to the sway of either Javanese or Sumatran power The most tangible evidence of the Hindu Buddhist period in Malaysian history is now to be found in the temple sites of Lembah Bujang and Kuala Merbok in Kedah.
4. Islamisation and the Melaka Sultanate
The Hindu Buddhist period of Malaysian history ended with the penetration of Islam into the area. Brought primarily by Indian and Arab traders, there is evidence of the presence of the new reli gion in the region as early as the thirteenth century. After 1400, Islam became a major influence with the conversion of the Malay Hindu rulers of Melaka. From Melaka, Islam spread to other parts of the Malay Peninsula and to the Malay states in Sumatra and along the trade routes throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Once established as the religion of the Malays, Islam profoundly affected Malay society and the Malay way of life. After the collapse of
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Melaka, the sultanate of Brunei in Kalimantan rose to become the principal agent for the propagation of Islam in that area.
The Malay kingdom of Melaka which dominated both sides of the Straits of Melaka for a hundred years marked the classical age of Malay culture. Most of the Malay States of the Peninsula today can trace their genesis back to the Melaka sultanate. In Kalimantan the inhabitants of modern Sabah and Sarawak lived an autonomous existence although the ancient kingdom of Brunei exercised a gen eral sway over them until the end of the nineteenth century.
5. European Penetration and Colonialism
Both the Melaka and Brunei empires were shattered by the coming of the Europeans into the region. Melaka fell to a sudden Portugese assault in 1511. The power of Brunei was crippled in its infancy by the establishment of the Spaniards in the Philippines and by the rise of Dutch power in Java. Johor tried to take the place of Melaka but was restricted not only by the Europeans, but also by the activities of local rivals such as the Achinese, Minangkabau and the Bugis. As a result, the present day States of the Peninsula gradually emerged as sovereign units in their own right.
Despite their technological superiority, European power in the region remained restricted until the British intrusion at the end of the eighteenth century which brought the resources and organiza tion of the Industrial Revolution. From their new bases of Pulau Pinang (1786), Singapore (1819) and Melaka (1824), which became known collectively as the Straits Settlements, their influence and power spread into the Malay Peninsula, and the process of political integration of the Malay States of the Peninsula into a modern nation state began. In 1824 the Malay world was arbitrarily divided into British and Dutch spheres of influence (i.e. by the Anglo Dutch treaty of that year). In 1874 the British took the first steps towards bringing the peninsula States under their direct supervision when they imposed the Pangkor Treaty on the rulers of Perak and made similar arrangements in Selangor. Meanwhile in Kalimantan, the States of Sarawak and Sabah were beginning to take shape as British adventurers acquired the territories at the expense of the Brunei sul
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tanate. By 1914 the political organization of the present day states of Malaysia was as follows:
1)The Straits Settlements: British crown colony headed by a British governor, consisting of Singapore, Melaka, Pulau Pinang, Labuan, the Cocos Isles and Christmas Isle. Capital: Singapore.
2)The Federated Malay States: British protectorate headed by a British High Commissioner (Governor of the Straits Settlements); consisting of the States of Negeri Sembflan, Pahang, Perak and Selangor.
3)The Unfederated Malay States: British protectorate under the tutelage of a British Adviser in each State responsible to the British Commissioner, consisting of Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu.
4)Sarawak: British protectorate ruled by the Brooke family. Capital: Kuching.
5)Sabah: British protectorate, ruled by the Chartered Company of the British North Borneo. Capital: Jesselton (Kota Kinabalu).
6. The Japanese Conquest and Its Aftermath
The Japanese invasion of Malaya and British Borneo in late 1941, which culminated in the humiliating British surrender in Singapore two and a half months later, shattered Western colonial supremacy and unleashed the forces of incipient nationalism. Although the British were able to resume their authority in the region after the collapse of Japan in 1945, they faced an entirely new political situation and those circumstances forced them to adopt new policies. As a result the Straits Settlements were dissolved. Pulau Pinang and Melaka were joined with the Malay States of the Peninsula to form a new Malayan Union. Singapore became a sep arate crown colony and so did both Sarawak and British North Borneo in place of the former Brooke and Chartered Company regimes. Labuan was joined to British North Borneo.
These new arrangements met with considerable Malaysian opposition. In Sarawak a strong campaign developed opposing the
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