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conventional weapons such as antipersonnel landmines and small arms that have not been internationally controlled to date, have become a major factor to escalate conflicts and to expand damage, particularly in civil wars.

(Diversification of nature of threats)

Threats in today’s world can no longer be measured simply by their military capability or power to physically blow others. Such threats as environmental destruction, infectious diseases, refugees, illegal immigration and international organized crime have become increasingly serious global problems that threaten people’s lives across national borders, and thus require international cooperation.

4. Changes of Japan and its foreign policy

What direction is Japan heading amid these international cur rents?

Amid the diversification of threats, Japan is facing a mounting uncertainty, as in the increasing danger of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. However, what is more important for Japan is that the direction Japan is to take is now being questioned.

Japan, with its economic strength, has kept a certain degree of influence in the international community. It is now apparent how ever, that its economic growth will reach its limit if Japan takes its existing systems for granted and fails to make reform efforts. Our concern that Japan’s relative position in the world will no longer go up is even more real as other individual or groups of countries, rid ing on a tide of globalization, achieve further development. This is all the more likely in light of the difficulties such as a falling birth rate and aging population that Japan will face as a mature nation.

Since Japan continues not to rely on military strength as a means of securing its national interests, it is important to bear fully in our minds the relative change to Japan’s position against the internation al match ground, to identify the sources of national power, which underpins its foreign policy, and to take necessary actions.

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5. Three challenges for Japan’s foreign policy toward the 21st century

As the international community searches for a new order amid these currents and Japan faces the test of changing it at the dawn of the 21st century, the role of foreign policy for people’s living is weighing more.

What are the challenges for Japan to achieve its diplomatic objectives amid these new currents? This section, in its attempt to give general directions to be followed by Japan, outlines three chal lenges: enhancing the “total strength of foreign policy”, “national power”, and reinforcing “diplomatic frameworks.”

Challenge 1: Enhancing the total strength of foreign policy

With internal affairs and foreign relations becoming more close ly interlinked, a nation’s internal affairs and its domestic systems that have been regarded as the matters of national sovereignty, are now subject to requests of the international community. To conduct foreign policy under these circumstances, its total strength is required more than ever. The challenge is to enhance people’s inter est in foreign policy, to consolidate public opinions, and to imple ment foreign policy with public support. For this purpose, it is nec essary to strengthen privately funded policy research institutes, to promote research at universities and other institutions of higher education, to provide more opportunities for public discussion on foreign policy, and to build a system to fully reflect these recom mendations in policy making process.

In the United States, for example, the World Affairs Council holds a network of almost 80 organizations which enables citizens to participate in debates on foreign affairs. On this front, Japan’s efforts are far from being called sufficient. We need to design frameworks for boosting public debates on and understanding of foreign affairs.

In this relation, a so called “track 2” dialogue, a dialogue whose party consists of both intellectuals from the private sector and gov ernment officials, should be utilized more frequently.

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Furthermore, partnership between the government and NGOs/NPOs should be built in other areas than development assis tance, where such ties have been traditionally strong, while develop ing the ways to listen to a broader range of people, including labor unions, consumer groups and business circles. In promoting such ties, the question of the accountability of the NGOs/NPOs has to be also addressed.

On the other hand, the government is required to demonstrate its total strength. Through close inter agency coordination and con sultations, the government must conduct its foreign policy in a body for the interest of Japan as a whole.

Challenge 2: Enhancing national power that supports foreign policy

(Review of national power)

There is no question about the need of our efforts to achieve steady development of the Japanese economy and doing our best to overcome the current economic difficulties. Given that another leap is hard to expect if our foreign policy dependent on economic strength remains unchanged, we must reconsider where we should find the sources of our national power that would support our diplo macy.

(Technology)

First comes technology. As a pillar of economic strength, tech nology is counted as one of main sources of national power. The cor rectness of Japan’s policy, having sought development through its technological advantage, should be recognized once again. To keep expanding the world economy, steady progress of science and tech nology and sharing of such technology on a global scale are indis pensable. As one of the few countries that can fulfill this mission, Japan must devise a national strategy for the development of science and technology to move forward technological frontiers without a break.

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(Inventiveness)

Japan must cultivate its ability to design systems and rules that could serve as global standards. In the area of development, Japan advocates for a comprehensive approach for the solution of conflicts and poverty, the idea that was agreed upon at the Japan initiated Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD) and has just begun to take root. Japan is also trying to embody the concept of «human security» to the effect that human existence and dignity must be secured from various threats including environmen tal issues and poverty by strengthened and comprehensive measures. We also need to deliberate on frameworks to address issues associat ed with globalization, including currency problems, and to strength en and expand the horizon of our intellectual contributions in vari ous areas such as food and energy, which are expected to become more serious issues in a longer term.

(Renewed recognition of a nation’s responsibility)

Now is the time to ask ourselves once again the fundamental question — what should a nation do to ensure the security of its cit izens? There should be an open discussion on the role of a nation in ensuring the security of its citizens, to avoid falling into such extreme arguments as interpreting a dispatch of the Self Defense Force units to rescue Japanese citizens from areas of conflict as a resurgence of the Japanese militarism. In light of the importance of world peace and stability to the security and prosperity of Japan, we must also discuss what concrete measures we should take in order to further strengthen our contribution to international efforts to resolve conflicts. Through these discussions, it is necessary to remind our selves the grounds of foreign policy that is, maintaining policy coherence and taking responsible actions as a nation.

Challenge 3: Reinforcing diplomatic frameworks

To address numerous new challenges that the international community faces today, we must endeavor to strengthen frameworks of international cooperation. A scope of the efforts should not be

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limited to improvement of existing frameworks but be expanded to establishment of new frameworks. Considering the major trends in the international community, the following elements are important.

(To build a secure world)

One of the most critical countermeasures to diversifying threats would be to take a comprehensive approach that encompasses all stages of conflicts from prevention to resolution.

The first step would be to redouble our efforts in control and reduction of all s to conventional weapons, while taking a compre hensive approach that covers controls both on weapons themselves and transfers of relevant goods and technologies. The measures to counter conflicts must also address all stages of conflicts through preventive diplomacy to cope with poverty and other social problems that lie at the root of conflicts, response to actual conflicts, and post conflict reconstruction.

The conventional approach that centered on self defense and peacekeeping activities is no longer sufficient in coping with ethnic conflicts, which differ in nature from international conflicts in a tra ditional sense. It is necessary to give serious consideration to build ing of a new effective framework. The movement toward early estab lishment of an international criminal court aimed at impartial and appropriate handling of a serious case of violation by an individual against the international code is a positive step in this direction.

In order to ensure faithful observance of international law and to enhance trust in international legal structures, it is important to strengthen the international judicial system in general.

Japan must also take the initiative by designing and building appropriate frameworks of international cooperation vis a vis various threats. From this perspective, it is necessary to build frameworks at various levels according to purposes, including a dialogue framework of Japan, the US, China and Russia, a frame

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work of these four countries plus the ROK, and North Korea in addition, and a framework of like minded countries intended to form core agreements to be widely shared in the international community.

(To build a prosperous world)

What comes next is the challenge of globalization. The Bretton Woods system, established on the basis of the lessons learned from the process of entering into World War II, brought unprecedented prosperity to the post war world through ensuring stable currency market, liberalization of trade and investment and development assistance. However, the system needs reviewing in terms of the sys temic risk and serious social impacts, that globalization, a symbol of the system’s success, is ironically causing. To build a system that makes utmost use of the strengths of market economies and address es new challenges, it is necessary to consider a wide range of issues, including ways to ensure stable currency markets, propriety of con trols on short term private capital, modality of international support for the countries facing crises including IMF conditionality, meas ures to strengthen such support, and restructuring of international financial institutions.

Japan should try to better reflect its views in the activities of international financial institutions by increasing contribution to these institutions and other measures. Japan should also consider establishing a regional monetary fund to respond flexibly to curren cy and financial problems in Asian countries. Another important task would be to play a leading role in developing new international economic rules, for instance, under the World Trade Organization and to promote Japan made rules to global standards.

Meanwhile, social problems arising from intensified competi tion must not be overseen. We need to help emerging economies through technical assistance for modification of the pace and secto rial balance of liberalization in those economies as well as support for webbing a tight safety net for the socially vulnerable.

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Globalization has prompted the process of EU integration and emergence of euro as a major competitor to the dollar, currently a sole international currency, so to speak. Under these circumstances, there is an urgent need that Japan consider how to respond to these situations, including the possibility of making the yen more interna tional.

6. Strengthening means to conduct foreign policy

In actually responding to these challenges for the 21st century, Japan must strengthen its means to conduct foreign policy and make beneficial arrangements for itself.

(Securing a voice)

First of all, it is important to secure our voice in international frameworks. It goes without saying that Japan should participate in international decision making processes that could affect its course. In this connection, the importance of reforming the United Nations Security Council and Japan’s attaining a permanent seat in the council is apparent.

By taking the initiative to build new international frameworks in addition to strengthening our voice in existing international organi zations and frameworks, Japan should be able to secure its position as an active player in the international arena.

(Official development assistance)

The role of ODA as a means of achieving our diplomatic objec tives remains critically important. Under the tight fiscal conditions, it is urgent that we formulate ODA policies with strategic minds unrestricted by the conventional thinking so that we can maximize the effectiveness of ODA.

(Human resources)

It is essential to develop human resources, throughout polit ical, bureaucratic and business circles, capable of expressing

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their opinions and taking actions in the international arena as well as carrying out research that supports such activities. Human resources development through, for example, reinforcement of private research institutes and promotion of parliamentarian exchanges must be encouraged more than anything. While we cul tivate the human resources at home, we should send more Japanese staff to international organizations including the United Nations.

(Strategic public relations policy)

As the relative weight of persuasiveness as opposed to force fulness in international politics increases, aggressive public rela tions strategies must be developed. The growing importance of extracting the target information from a flood of information as well as sending out the proper messages at the proper moment by the proper medium to the proper target. Systematic involvement of media strategists into the policy making process is also neces sary.

To introduce Japanese culture abroad and to promote under standing of Japan by the general public overseas should lead to sta ble relations with other nations over the long term. Strategic policy planning is required in this area as well.

(Organizational strength)

Finally, it is necessary to strengthen our diplomatic infrastruc ture and systems while ensuring their efficient and effective use. In comparison with other nations’ situations and in terms of our vision of the Japanese diplomacy in the 21st century, much needs to be done. We learned from the Gulf War and the seizure of the Ambassador’s Residence in Peru that there is a compelling need to further develop and strengthen a crisis management system. Japan must also strengthen its structure to support diplomatic functions in such areas as collecting and analyzing information broadly and accurately as well as utilizing it fully and swiftly in overall policy planning.

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CHINESE BEAR THE BRUNT OF ANGER

УПРАЖНЕНИЕ 56

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Asia’s economic crisis (см. рис. 9, стр. 249), which has caused Indonesia’s currency to plummet and food prices to jump,

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