III. Focus on Writing

1. Write a translation and a brief comment on the paragraph “While he read … he was making” (p. 256-257).

2. Write the summary of chapters 22, 23.

3. Define the plot of the chapters, their tone, settings and characters.

4. Speak on the vocabulary and syntax of the chapters.

IV. Focus on Text Analysis

In literary works the infinite variety of human attitudes can be grouped under four general headings:

1. The epic key which is characterized by a dignified theme, organic unity and an orderly progress of action. Epic is always a long poem celebrating the achievements of one or more heroes of history or tradition. In prose the epic key is typical of description of events that have been completed in the past and are, therefore, viewed by the narrator in restrospect. The syntax is elaborate. There are no sudden changes of construction. The lexis is simple. The narration is impersonal, businesslike, unhurried. It shows the consecutive order of sentences.

2. The dramatic key is characteristic of passages of prose and poems relating any series of events having vivid, emotional, conflicting, or striking interest or results. It is often felt in dynamic dialogues where the narrator is eliminated. The lexis is emotive, various tropes are used. There are exclamatory and interrogative sentences, the sentences are uneven in length.

3. The lyrical key is present in those literary texts that are expressive of the author’s feelings rather than of outward incidents or events. In lyrical passages of prose or in lyrical poems the author’s attention is concentrated on his emotive attitude to life. On his thoughts about it, on his feelings. Personal pronouns are important in lyrical texts. Present tenses are characteristic of the lyrical key to show that the lyrical “I” is unaware of time, to emphasize some abstract moment. Other distinctive features are elevated, poetic lexis, emotive-evaluative words, emphatic syntax, direct addresses, the imperative mood, imaginative language, expanded reiteration and parallelism.

4. The grotesque key reflects a deviation from real proportions, an exaggeration of certain features of some phenomenon. The example of the grotesque key in pictorial art is a caricature. In literature, passages and whole works are written to produce a funny or ludicrous effect. Depending on the degree of grotesqueness in the presentment of thoughts several keys are to be distinguished: a) humorous; b) ironical, and c) satirical.

Humour reflects the comical aspect of life and points out some inner contradictoriness of a phenomenon, some discrepancy between form and context. We usually describe in a humorous key somebody we are fond of. Humour is intended to cause mirth, it is kindly and tolerant on the whole.

Humour can be caused by a marked artlessness of presenting one’s ideas (e.g. “The bird that I am going to write about is the owl… I do not know much about the owl, so I will go on to the beast I am going to choose. It is the cow” (a composition on a bird and a beast by a child of ten). A grave, serious manner of describing an essentially comic situation can be pervaded with gentle humour. In speech characterization, one of the favourite devices is the use of grandiloquence while dealing with a trite situation (e.g. Lawyer (to rattled witness) – “Did you, or did you not, on the aforementioned day feloniously and with malicious afterthought listen at the keyhole of the third floor rear department…?”). Akin to humour is wit, a clever and humorous expression of ideas. Unlike real humour which is usually sustained, wit is abrupt and often more biting than humour. Many witticisms are based on wordplay, or pun on words. Pun is a humorous or ludicrous use of words which sound the same or nearly the same or of two meanings of the word.

e.g. A maiden at college, Miss Breeze,

Weighed down by B.A.’s and Ph.D.’

Collapsed from the strain.

Said her doctor, “It’s plain

You are killing yourself – by degrees!” (Levinson L.L., 140)

This is an example of a limerick, a popular single-stanza verse form. B.A. and Ph.D. are university degrees. The pun is based on the two meaning of the word “degree”: 1) rank/grade given by a university; 2) step or stage in a process (by degrees = gradually).

A special form of wit is the paradox as a seemingly contradictory statement involving a truth or its element, e.g. The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it (O. Wilde); He who can, does, he who cannot, teaches (B. Shaw).

The epigram is close to paradox, it is a concise and pointed saying, usually in verse, e.g. What is an epigram? A dwarfish whole:

Its body brevity, and wit its soul (Coleridge).

Irony emphasizes the paradoxical nature of reality or contrast between an ideal and actual condition, set of circumstances, etc., frequently in such a way as to stress the absurdity present in the contradiction between substance and form. Unlike the humourous key, the ironical key indicates mockery of something or someone. The essential feature of irony is the indirect presentation of a contradiction between an action or expression and the context in which it occurs.

e.g. It was famous for the pillory, a wise old institution that inflicted a punishment of which no one could foresee the extent; also the whipping-post, another dear old institution, very humanizing and softening to behold in action … (Ch. Dickens).

Sarcasm is related to irony. Unlike irony, sarcasm reflects directly what the person means but it is done in a way that implies ridicule, mockery, or contempt. The difference between irony and sarcasm may be illustrated in such a way: e.g. “What a fine musician you turned out to be!” (irony); “”You couldn’t play one piece correctly if you had two assistants” (sarcasm).

The satirical key implies the use of taunting irony or sarcasm for censorious purposes and is often directed at public figures or institutions, political situations, or at some moral or social vice.

e.g. the Circumlocution Office (Ministry) was (as everybody knows without being told) the most important Department under Government. <…> Whatever was required to be done, the Circumlocution Office was beforehand with all the public departments in the art of perceiving – how not to do it (Ch. Dickens).

Comment on the humor used in the chapters (p. 265, 266 etc,), define its types.