Table 1 Germanic Languages

East Germanic	North Germanic	West Germanic
dead, no longer exist - Gothic, came down to us in the translation of the Bible by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas, 4th A.D.	(the Scandinavian group) Swedish (Sweden, partly in Finland) Norwegian (Norway, partly in Denmark) Danish (Denmark, partly in Sweden) Icelandic (Iceland) Faroese (the Faeroe Islands – a dialect?)	English (Britain, the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Caribbean Islands, etc) German ( Germany, Austria, Luxemburg, Liechtenstein, partly in Switzerland Dutch (the Netherlands) Flemish (Flanders, Belgium) Afrikaans (the South African Republic) Frisian (partly in the Netherlands and Germany – a dialect?) Yiddish (the language of the Jewish population of Eastern Europe spoken in X-XII c.c.); in different countries)

Researchers are not unanimous in their estimation of the number of Germanic languages and their distinction. Until recently Dutch and Flemish were named as separate languages, now there is a common term for them – the Netherlandic (Netherlandish) (Note 1) language as spoken in The Netherlands, together with the same language in northern Belgium, which is popularly called Flemish. In the European Middle Ages, the language was called Dietsc, or Duutsc, historically equivalent to German Deutsch and meaning simply “language of the people,” as contrasted with Latin, which was the language of religion and learning. The form Duutsc was borrowed into English and gives modern “Dutch.” The official name of the language is Nederlands, or Netherlandic. In The Netherlands it is also called Hollands (Hollandish), reflecting the fact that

the standard language is based largely on the dialect of the old province of Holland (now North Holland and South Holland).

Frisian and Faroese are regarded as dialects since they are spoken over small politically dependent areas; British English and American English are sometimes thought to be 2 independent languages. By one estimate, the number of people speaking Germanic languages amounts to 440 million (T.A. Rastorguyeva) plus an indefinite number of bilingual nations with English spoken as one of the official languages.

2. Old Germanic Languages and their Classification.

The history of the Germanic group begins with the appearance of what is known as the Proto-Germanic (PG) language also termed Common or Primitive Germanic, Primitive Teutonic or simple Germanic). PG is the linguistic ancestor or the parent-language of the Germanic group. It is believed to have split from the IE related tongues sometime between the 15^th and 10^th c.c.BC. The ancient Germans or Teutons are supposed to have settled on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in the region of the Elbe. This place is regarded as the most probable original home of the Teutons.

PG is an entirely pre-historical language: it was never recorded in written form. In the 19^th century it was reconstructed by methods of comparative linguistics from written evidence in descendant languages.

It is believed that at the earliest stages of history, PG was one language, though dialectally coloured. In its later stages dialectal differences grew, so that towards the beginning of our era German appears divided into dialectal groups and tribal dialects. Dialectal differentiation increased with migrations and geographical expansion of the Teutons caused by over population, poor agricultural technique and scanty natural resources in the areas of their original settlement.

A. Earliest records of Germanic tribes.

The records of ancient Germanic tribes are based on testimonies by Greek and Roman travellers and geographers. The earliest of them refers to the IV c. B.C. made by Phytheas, a Greek astronomer and geographer who sailed from Gaul (France) to the mouth of the river Elbe. He described the tribes of the Teutons.

The next major description of the Teutons came from Julius Caesar, the Roman general and statesman which he left in his book ‘Commentaries on the War in Gaul’ (1 c..BC.)

A century later (1 c.A.D.) Pliny the Elder, a Roman naturalist, gave a classification of the Germanic which until quite recently had basically been accepted by modern researchers. According to it, the tribes in 1^st c.A.D. comprised 5 major groups which fell into 3 subgroups: Eastern Germanic, Western Germanic and Northern Germanic. They were 1) the Vindili 2) the Ingaevones 3) the Hermiones 4) the Hilleveones. Table 2 illustrates this division.

A few decades later the Roman historian Tacitus compiled a detailed description of the life and customs of the ancient Teutons where he reproduced Pliny’s classification of the Germanic tribes. Having made a linguistic analysis of several Germanic dialects of later ages, F. Engels came to the conclusion that Pliny’s classification of the Teutonic tribes accurately reflected the contemporary dialectal division.

The traditional tri-partite classification of the Germanic languages was reconsidered and corrected in some recent publications (Rastorgueyva). It appears that the development of the Germanic group was not confined to successive splits; it involved both linguistic divergence and convergence. It has also been discovered that originally PG split into two main branches and that the tri-partite division marks a later stage of its history.

The earliest migration of the Germanic tribes from the lower valley of the Elbe consisted in their movement north, to the Scandinavian peninsula, a few hundred years before our era. This geographical segregation must have led to linguistic differentiation and to the division of PG into the northern and southern branches. At the beginning of our era, some of the tribes returned to the mainland and settled closer to the Vistula basin, east of the other continental Germanic tribes. It is only from this stage of their history that the Germanic languages can be described under three headings: East Germanic, North Germanic and West Germanic.