Questions:

1. What are compounds?

2. What are the structural peculiarities of compounds?

3. What are the phonetical peculiarities of compounds?

4. What are the graphical peculiarities of compounds?

5. What are semantic peculiarities of compounds?

6. Prove that compounds possess structural meaning.

7. Give examples of compounds with polysemantic structure.

8. Give examples of completely motivated, partially motivated and non-motivated compounds.

9. What are the principles according to which compounds can be classified?

10. What is the classification of compounds according to degree of semantic independence?

11. What is the functional classification of compounds?

12. What is the classification of compounds according to means of composition?

13. What is the classification of compounds according to types of basis?

Shortening and Other Minor Types

R.S. Ginzburg, A Course in Modern English Lexicology, §9. Various Ways of Word-Creation [pp. 187-191]

New words in different notional classes appear also as a result of various non-patterned ways of word creation. The two main types of non-patterned word-creation are: I. Various ways of transformation of a word-form into a word usually referred to as lexicalization and II. Shortening which consists in substitut­ing a part for a whole. Shortening comprises essentially different ways of word creation. It involves 1. transformation of a word-group into a word, and 2. a change of the word-structure resulting in a new lexical item, i.e. clipping.

I

Lexicalization

Adjectivization

. Lexicalization. Due to various semantic and syntactic reasons the grammatical flexion in some word-forms, most often the plu­ral of nouns, as in, e.g. the nounsarms, customs, colours, loses its gram­matical meaning and becomes isolated from the paradigm of the words arm, custom, look. As a result of the re-interpretation of the plural suf­fix the word-formarms, customs developed a different lexical meaning 'weapons' and 'import duties' respectively. This led to a complete break of semantic links with the semantic structure of the wordsarm,customand thus to the appearance of new words with a different set of grammati­cal features. It must be noted that there is no unanimity of opinion on whether all such items should be viewed as new words or only as new meanings. Different approaches to the problem are connected with the border-line between polysemy and homonymy and many individual cases are actually open to doubt.

Essentially the same phenomenon of lexicalization is observed in the transition of participles into adjectives. The process is also known as adjectivization. It may be illustrated by a number of adjectives such astired, devoted, interesting, amusing, etc. which are now felt as homonymous to the participles of the verbsto tire, to marry, etc.

Lexicalization is a long, gradual historical process which synchronically results in the appearance of new vocabulary units.

I

Shortening vs. graphical abbreviations

I. Shortening. Distinction should be made between shorten­ing which results in new lexical items and a specific type of shor­tening proper only to written speech resulting in numerous graphical abbreviations which are only signs representing words and word-groups of high frequency of occurrence in various spheres of human activity as for instance,RD forRoad andSt forStreet in addresses on envelopes and in letters;tu for tube, aer for aerial in Radio Engineering literature, etc. English graphical abbreviations include rather numerous shortened variants of Latin and French words and word-groups, e.g.:i.e. (L. id est)—'that is';R.S.V.P. (Fr.—Repondez s'il vous plait)—'reply please', etc.

Graphical abbreviations are restricted in use to written speech, oc­curring only in various kinds of texts, articles, books, advertisements, letters, etc. In reading, -many of them are substituted by the words and phrases that they represent, e.g.Dr. = doctor, Mr.=mister, Oct. =October, etc.; the abbreviations of Latin and French words and phrases are usually read as their English equivalents. It follows that graphical abbreviations cannot be considered new lexical vocabulary units.

It is only natural that in the course of language development some graphical abbreviations should gradually penetrate into the sphere of oral intercourse and, as a result, turn into self-contained lexical units used both in oral and written speech. That is the case, for instance, with a.m. ['eɪ'em]—'in the morning, before noon';p.m. ['pi:'em]—'in the afternoon';S.O.S. ['es 'ou 'es] (=Save Our Souls)—'urgent call for help', etc.

1. Transformations of word-groups into words involve different types of lexical shortening: elipsis or substantivization, initial letter or syllable abbreviations (also referred to as acronyms), blendings, etc.

S

Substantivization

ubstantivization consists in dropping of the final nomi­nal member of a frequently used attributive word-group. When such a member of the word-group is dropped as, for example, was the case with a documentary film the remaining adjective takes on the meaning and all the syntactic functions of the noun and thus develops into a new word changing its class membership and becoming homonymous to the existing adjective. It may be illustrated by a number of nouns that appeared in this way, e.g.an incendiary goes back toan incendiary bomb, the finals tothe final examinations, an editorial toan editorial article, etc. Other more recent creations arean orbital (Br. 'a highway going around the suburbs of a city'),a verbal ('a verbal confession intro­duced as evidence at a trial'),a topless which goes to three different word-groups and accordingly has three meanings: 1) a topless dress, bathing suit, etc., 2) a waitress, dancer, etc. wearing topless garments, 3) a bar, night-club featuring topless waitresses or performers.

Substantivization is often accompanied by productive suffixation as in, e.g.,a one-winger fromone-wing plane,a two-decker fromtwo-deck bus orship; it may be accompanied by clipping and productive suf­fixation, e.g.flickers (coll.) fromflicking pictures, a smoker fromsmok­ing carriage, etc.

A

Acronyms and letter abbreviations

cronyms and letter abbreviations are lexical abbreviations of a phrase. There are different types of such abbreviations and there is no unanimity of opinion among scholars whether all of them can be regarded as regular vocabulary units. It seems logical to make distinction between acronyms and letter abbreviations. Letter abbrevia­tions are mere replacements of longer phrases including names of well- known organizations of undeniable currency, names of agencies and in­stitutions, political parties, famous people, names of official offices, etc. They are not spoken or treated as words but pronounced letter by letter and as a rule possess no other linguistic forms proper to words. The follow­ing may serve as examples of such abbreviations:CBW = chemical and biological warfare,DOD = Department of Defence (of the USA), ITV — Independent Television, Instructional Television,SST = su­personic transport, etc. It should be remembered that the border-line between letter abbreviations and true acronyms is fluid and many letter abbreviations in the course of time may turn into regular vocabulary units. Occasionally letter abbreviations are given 'pronunciation spell­ing' as for instance dejay (= D.J. = disc jokey),emce (== M.C. = mas­ter of ceremonies) in which case they tend to pass over into true acro­nyms.

Acronyms are regular vocabulary units spoken as words. They are formed in various ways:

1

Ways of forming acronyms

) from the initial letters or syllables of a phrase, which may be pro­nounced differently a) as a succession of sounds denoted by the constitu­ent letters forming a syllabic pattern, i.e. as regular words, e.g.UNO['ju:nou] = United Nations Organizations;NATO ['neitou] = North Atlantic Treaty Organization,UNESCO [ju:'neskou];laser ['leɪsǝ] = light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation;radar ['reɪdǝ] = radio detection and ranging;BMEWS['bi:mju:z] = Ballistic Missile Early Warning System; b) as a succession of the alphabetical readings of the constituent letters as in, e.g.,YCL['waɪ'si:'el] = Young Commu­nist League;BBC ['bi:'bi:'si:l = British Broadcasting Corporation; MP ['em'pi:] = Member of Parliament;SOS I'es'ou'es] = Save Our Souls.

2) Acronyms may be formed from the initial syllables of each word of the phrase, e.g.interpol = inter/national pol/ice;tacsatcom = Tacti­cal Satellite Communications;Capcom = Capsule Communicator (the person at a space flight centre who communicates with the astronauts during a space flight).

3) Acronyms may be formed by a combination of the abbreviation of the first or the first two members of the phrase with the last member undergoing no change at all, e.g.V-day = Victory Day;H-bomb= hydrogen bomb; g-force = gravity force, etc.

All acronyms unlike letter abbreviations perform the syntactical functions of ordinary words taking on grammatical inflexions, e.g. MPs (will attack huge arms bill),M.P's (concern at . . .). They also serve as derivational bases for derived words and easily collocate with derivational suffixes as, e.g.YCLer (= member of the YCL);MPess(= woman-member of Parliament);radarman, etc.

B

Blendings

lendings are the result of conscious creation of words by merging irregular fragments of several words which are aptly called "splinters." Splinters assume different shapes—they may be severed from the source word at a morpheme boundary as intransceiver (=transmitter and receiv­er),transistor (= transfer and resistor) or at a syllable boundary like cute (from execute) inelectrocute, medicare (from medical care),polutician (from pollute and politician) or boundaries of both kinds may be disregarded as inbrunch (from breakfast and lunch),smog (from smoke and fog),ballute (from baloon and parachute), etc. Many blends show some degree of overlapping of vowels, consonants and syllables or echo the word or word fragment it replaces. This device is often used to attain punning effect, as infoolosopher echoing philosopher; icecapade (= spec­tacular shows on ice) echoing escapade; baloonatic (= baloon and lu­natic).

Blends are coined not infrequently in scientific and technical lan­guage as a means of naming new things, as trade names in advertise­ments. Since blends break the rules of morphology they result in origi­nal combinations which catch quickly. Most of the blends have a collo­quial flavour.

2

Clipping

. Clipping refers to the creation of new words by shortening a word of two or more syllables (usually nouns and adjectives) without changing its class membership. Clipped words, though they often exist together with the longer original source word function as independent lexical units with a certain phonetic shape and lexical meaning of their own. The lexical meanings of the clipped word and its source do not as a rule coincide, for instance,doc refers only to 'one who practices medicine', whereasdoctor denotes also 'the higher degree given by a university and a person who has received it', e.g.Doctor of Law, Doctor of Philo­sophy. Clipped words always differ from the non-clipped words in the emotive charge and stylistic reference. Clippings indicate an attitude of familiarity on the part of the user either towards the object denoted or towards the audience, thus clipped words are characteristic of collo­quialspeech. In the course of time, though, many clipped words find their way into the literary language losing some of their colloquial colouring. Clippings show various degrees of semantic dissociation from their full forms. Some are no longer felt to be clippings, e.g.pants (cf. pantaloons), bus (cf.omnibus), bike (cf.bicycle), etc. Some of them retain rather close semantic ties with the original word. This gives ground to doubt whether the clipped words should be considered separate words. Some linguists hold the view that in case semantic dissociation is slight and the major difference lies in the emotive charge and stylistic appli­cation the two units should be regarded as word-variants (e.g.examandexamination, lab andlaboratory, etc.).

Clipping often accompanies other ways of shortening such as sub­stantivization, e.g.perm (from permanent wave),op (from optical art), pop (from popular music, art, singer, etc.), etc.

As independent vocabulary units clippings serve as derivational bases for suffixal derivations collocating with highly productive neutral and stylistically non-neutral suffixes -ie, -er, e.g.nightie (cf. night­dress), panties, hanky (cf. handkerchief). Cases of conversion are not infrequent, e.g.to taxi, to perm, etc.

There do not seem to be any clear rules by means of which we might predict where a word will be cut though there are several types into which clippings are traditionally classified according to the part of the word that is clipped:

1

Types of clipping

) Words that have been shortened at the end—the so-called apo­cope, e.g.ad (from advertisement),lab (from laboratory),mike (from microphone), etc.

2) Words that have been shortened at the beginning—the so-called aphaeresis, e.g.car (from motor-car),phone (from telephone), copter (from helicopter), etc.

3) Words in which some syllables or sounds have been omitted from the middle—the so-called syncope, e.g.maths (from mathematics), pants (from pantaloons),specs (from spectacles), etc.

4) Words that have been clipped both at the beginning and at the end, e.g.flu (from influenza),tec (from detective),fridge (from refrigerator), etc.

It must be stressed that acronyms and clipping are the main ways of word-creation most active in present-day English. The peculiarity of both types of words is that they are structurally simple, semantically non-motivated and give rise to new root-morphemes.