- •Table of Contents
- •Lexicology as a Science. The Object of Lexicology The main lexicological units. Their similarity and distinctive functions
- •Questions:
- •Types of Lexicology. Approaches to Language Study
- •Questions:
- •The Aims and Tasks of the Course of Modern English Lexicology
- •Questions
- •Links of Lexicology with Other Branches of Linguistics
- •Questions:
- •Semasiology Meaning as a Linguistic Notion. Approaches to Meaning Study
- •Questions:
- •The Semantic Triangle. The Interrelation of Meaning with Sound-form, Referent and Concept.
- •Questions:
- •Types of Meaning
- •Questions:
- •Semantic Structure of Words. Componential Analysis
- •Questions:
- •Aspects of Lexical Meaning
- •Questions:
- •Word-Meaning and Motivation
- •Questions:
- •Polysemy and Homonymy Diachronic and Synchronic Approaches to Polysemy
- •Questions:
- •Polysemy and Context. Types of Context
- •Questions:
- •Two Processes of the Semantic Development of a Word
- •Questions:
- •Homonymy Sources of Homonyms
- •Questions:
- •Classification of Homonyms
- •Questions:
- •Polysemy and Homonymy: Etymological and Semantic Criteria
- •Questions:
- •Change of Meaning Causes of Semantic Change
- •Questions
- •Nature of Semantic Change. Metaphor, Metonymy and Other Minor Types
- •Questions:
- •Results of Semantic Change
- •Questions:
- •Historical Changeability of Semantic Structure
- •Questions:
- •Lexical Paradigmatics English Vocabulary as a System
- •Questions:
- •Types of Semantic Relations of Words
- •Questions:
- •Different Groupings of Words Morphological Groupings
- •Questions:
- •Semantic Groupings Synonyms
- •Questions:
- •Antonyms
- •Questions:
- •Syntagmatic Relations of Words Lexical and Grammatical Valency
- •Questions:
- •Types of Word-Groups
- •Questions:
- •Phraseology Criteria of phraseological units
- •Questions:
- •Classification of Phraseological Units
- •Questions:
- •The Ways of Forming Phraseological Units
- •Questions:
- •Proverbs and Sayings
- •Questions:
- •Morphological Structure of English Words and Word-Formation Morphemes, Their Definition. Allomorphs
- •Questions:
- •Classification of Morphemes
- •Questions:
- •Morphemic and Derivational Analyses
- •Questions:
- •Productive Ways of Word-Building Affixation. Synonymity, homonymity and polysemy of affixes
- •Questions:
- •Conversion. Approaches to Conversion. Synchronic and Diachronic Treatment of Conversion. Types of Relations between Converted Pairs
- •I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs).
- •II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives).
- •Questions:
- •Compounding
- •Questions:
- •Shortening and Other Minor Types
- •Questions:
- •Questions:
- •Historical Changeability of Word-Structure
- •Questions:
- •Etymology Words of Native Origin
- •Questions:
- •Borrowings Causes and Ways of Borrowing. Criteria of Borrowings
- •Questions:
- •Assimilation of Borrowings
- •Questions:
- •Influence of Borrowings
- •Influence on semantics
- •Influence on lexical territorial divergence
- •Questions:
- •Etymological Doublets
- •Questions:
- •International Words
- •Questions:
- •Lexicological analysis of the text
- •11.Etymology.
- •Example analysis:
- •Mind-map of lexicology terms
- •Definitions Seminar 1. Lexicology as a science. The object of lexicology.
- •Seminar 2. Semasiology.
- •Seminar 3. Polysemy and Homonymy.
- •Seminar 4. Change of Meaning.
- •Seminar 6. Syntagmatic relations o words.
- •Examination Questions
Questions:
What is a necessary condition of any semantic change?
What are the two kinds of association involved as a rule in various semantic changes? Give examples of both.
What is specialization of meaning? Give examples.
What happens to the notion after specialization of meaning?
Give example of specialization of meaning in proper names.
What is generalization of meaning? Give examples.
What is metaphor and metonymy? Give examples.
What is the difference between linguistic and poetic metaphor?
Give example of metaphors in transitory state between poetic and linguistic.
Give example of metaphor based on similarity of shape.
Give example of anthropomorphic metaphor.
Give example of metaphors based on duration of time and space.
Give example of metaphorical transition of proper names into common nouns.
What are pars pro toto and totum pro parse? Give examples.
Give example of functional change.
Give example of metonymic derivation from proper names.
Give example of hyperboles, litotes, irony, euphemisms, amelioration and pejoration.
Results of Semantic Change
R.S. Ginzburg, A Course in Modern English Lexicology, §23. Results of Semantic Change [pp. 31-32]
Results of semantic change can begenerallyobserved in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word (restriction and extension of meaning) or in the alteration of its connotational component (amelioration and deterioration of meaning).
Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the restriction of the types or range of referents denoted by the word. This may be illustrated by the semantic development of the word hound (OE.hund) which used to denote 'a dog of any breed' but now denotes only 'a dog used in the chase'. This is also the case with the word fowl (OE.fuʒol, fuʒel) which in old English denoted 'any bird', but in Modern English denotes'a domestic hen or cock'.This is generally described as "restriction of meaning" and if the word with the new meaning comes to be used in the specialized vocabulary of some limited group within the speech community it is usual to speak of specialization, of meaning. For example, we can observe restriction and specialization of meaning in the case of the verbto glide(OE.glidan) which had the meaning 'to move gently and smoothly' and has now acquired a restricted and specialized meaning 'to fly with no engine' (cf.a glider).
Changes in the denotational meaning may also result in the application of the word to a wider variety of referents.This is commonly described as extension of meaning and may be illustrated by the wordtarget which originally meant 'a small round shield' (a diminutive oftarge, cf.ON.targa) but now means 'anything that is fired at' and also figuratively 'any result aimed at'.
If the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use, we describe the result of the semantic change as the generalization of meaning. The word camp, e.g., which originally was used only as a military term and meant 'the place where troops are lodged in tents' (cf. L.campus—'exercising ground for the army') extended and generalized its meaning and now denotes 'temporary quarters' (of travellers, nomads, etc.).
As can be seen from the examples discussed above it is mainly the denotational component of the lexical meaning that is affected while the connotational component remains unaltered. There are other cases, however, when the changes in the connotational meaning come to the fore. These changes, as a rule accompanied by a change in the denotational component, may be subdivided into two main groups: a) pejorative development or the acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive charge, and b) ameliorative development or the improvement of the connotational component of meaning. The semantic change in the wordboor may serve to illustrate the first group. This word was originally used to denote 'a villager, a peasant' (cf. OE. ʒebur 'dweller') and then acquired a derogatory, contemptuous connotational meaning and came to denote 'a clumsy or ill-bred fellow'. The ameliorative development of the connotational meaning may be observed in the change of the semantic structure of the wordministerwhich in one of its meanings originally denoted 'a servant, an attendant',but now—'a civil servant of higher rank, a person administering a department of state or accredited by one state to another'.
It is of interest to note that in derivational clusters a change in the connotational meaning of one member does not necessarily affect all the others. This peculiarity can be observed in the wordsaccident and accidental. The lexical meaning of the nounaccident has undergone pejorative development and denotes not only 'something that happens by chance', but usually'somethingunfortunate'. The derived adjectiveaccidental does not possess in its semantic structure this negative connotational meaning (cf. alsofortune: bad fortune, good fortune andfortunate).