- •Phonetics. It’s nature and use
- •2. Phonetics and other branches of linguistics
- •3. The theory of the phoneme in its historical development
- •4. The theory of the phoneme in foreign phonological schools
- •5. The dialectical-materialistic conception of the phoneme
- •6. Phonetics and phonology
- •7. Speech sounds and Phonemes
- •8. The phoneme alternations
- •9. Methods of phonological analysis
- •10. The distinctive and constitutive functions of segmental phonemes
- •11. Classification of Eng. Vowels
- •12. Phonological analysis of English vowels
- •13. The articulatory aspect of Eng. Vowels
- •14. Classification of Eng. Cons-s
- •15. Phonological analysis of English consonants.
- •16. The articulatory aspect of Eng. Cons-s
- •17. Assimilation
- •18. Reduction in English.
- •19. A syllable as a phonetic unit.
- •20. The principle theories of syllable formation
- •21. The syllable construction in English
- •22. Word stress in English
- •23. Place of word stress, degrees and types of word stress
- •24. Sentence-stress in English.
- •25. Three principal functions of sentence stress in English
- •26. Sentence stress and a sense group
- •27. Logic and emphatic stress in English
- •28. Intonation in English
- •29. Widened and narrowed ranges of int. Level tone
- •30. Speech melody
- •31. Two basic functions of speech melody
- •32. Tempo and timbre of speech in English
- •33. Rhythm of speech
- •34. Means of emphasis in English
- •35. Stylistic use of intonation
- •36. The main ways of notation (запись, усл. Знаки) of intonation patterns
- •37. British Received Pronunciation
- •38. American pronunciation standard
- •39. Regional variants of received pronunciation in England
- •40. Local dialects of English in g. B.
36. The main ways of notation (запись, усл. Знаки) of intonation patterns
Кратко
Graphical representation of intonation:
1. Ch. Fries drawing a line around the sentence to show relative pitch heights
2. D. Bolinger the syllables are written at different height where up-selected syllables show stress.
3. K .Pike marks syllables with numbers from 1-4, where 1 is the strongly stressed syllable.
4. O’Connor’s the one we use
There are a variety of methods for recording int. patterns in writing.
The first three methods reflect variations in pitch only:
1. The method introduced by Fries involves drawing a line around the sentence to show relative pitch heights.
2. The syllables are written at dif. heights across the page. This method is quite inconvenient as application wants a special model of print.
3. “Levels” method, a number of discrete levels of pitch are recognized, and the utterance is marked accordingly. This method was used by some American linguists who recognized four levels of pitch, low, normal, high and extra-high, numbering them from 1-4. Since most linguists who have adopted this method have favoured low-to-high numbering. This notation corresponds (соответствует) to the pattern of the example illustrating the first method.
4. The fourth method was used by most of the British phoneticians. This method has a number of advantages.
- not only variations of pitch but also stressed syllable are marked.
- dis’tinct (отдельный) modifications of pitch in the nuclear syllable are indicated by special symbols, i.e. by a downward and an upward arrow or a ‘sla:ntwise (косо) stress mark. Pitch movements in the pre-nuclear part can be indicated too.
- it is very convenient for marking intonation in texts.
One of the disadvantages of this method is that there has been no general agreement about the number of terminal tones and pre-nuclear parts English intonation system requires in order to provide adequate description.
So the simplest recognizes only two tones, a fall and a rise-easy to distinguish, but not sufficient for the phonological analysis.
37. British Received Pronunciation
It has long been believed that RP is a social marker, a prestige accent of an Englishman. In the 19-th century "received" was understood in the sense of "accepted in the best society". The speech of aristocracy and the court phonetically was that of the London area. Then it lost its local characteristics and was finally fixed as a ruling-class accent, often referred to as "King's English". It was also the accent taught at public schools. With the spread of education cultured people not belonging to the upper classes were eager to modify their accent in the direction of social standards.
We may definitely state now that RP is a genuinely regionless accent within Britain; i.e. if speakers have it you cannot tell which area of Britain they come from; which is not the case for any other type of British accents.
It is fair to mention, however, that only 3-5 per cent of the population of England speak RP. British phoneticians estimate that nowadays RP is not homogeneous (однородный). It is convenient to distinguish three main types within it:
the conservative RP forms, used by the older generation, and, traditionally, by certain profession or social groups;
the general RP forms, most commonly in use and typified by the pronunciation adopted by the BBC,
the advanced RP forms, mainly used by young people of exclusive social groups - mostly of the upper classes, but also for prestige value, in certain professional circles.
This last type of RP reflects the tendencies typical of changes in pronunciation. It is the most effected and exaggerated variety of the accent. Some of its features may be result of temporary fashion, some are adopted as a norm and described in the latest textbooks. Therefore, it is very important for a teacher and
learner of English to distinguish between the two. RP speakers make up a very small percentage of the English population. Many native speakers, especially teachers of English and professors of colleges and universities have accents closely resembling RP but not identical to it. They are called Near-RP southern. So various types of standard English pronunciation may be summarized as follows: Conservative RP; General RP; Advanced RP; Near-RP southern.