Corporations

Although there are many small and medium-sized com­panies, big business units play a dominant role in the American economy. There are several reasons for this. Large companies can supply goods and services to a greater number of people, and they frequently operate more efficiently than small ones. In addi­tion, they often can sell their products at lower prices because of the large volume and small costs per unit sold. They have an advantage in the marketplace because many consumers are attracted to well-known brand names, which they believe guar­antee a certain level of quality.

Large businesses are important to the overall economy because they tend to have more financial resources than small firms to conduct research and develop new goods. And they gen­erally offer more varied job opportunities and greater job stabil­ity, higher wages, and better health and retirement benefits.

Nevertheless, Americans have viewed large companies with some ambivalence, recognizing their important contribution to economic well-being but worrying that they could become so powerful as to stifle new enterprises and deprive consumers of choice. What's more, large corporations at times have shown themselves to be inflexible in adapting to changing economic conditions. In the 1970s, for instance, U.S. auto-makers were slow to recognize that rising gasoline prices were creating a demand for smaller, fuel-efficient cars. As a result, they lost a siz­able share of the domestic market to foreign manufacturers, mainly from Japan.

In the United States, most large businesses are organized as corporations. A corporation is a specific legal form of business organization, chartered by one of the 50 states and treated under the law like a person. Corporations may own property, sue or be sued in court, and make contracts. Because a corporation has legal standing itself, its owners are partially sheltered from responsibility for its actions. Owners of a corporation also have limited financial liability; they are not responsible for corporate debts, for instance. If a shareholder paid $100 for 10 shares of stock in a corporation and the corporation goes bankrupt, he or she can lose the $100 investment, but that is all. Because cor­porate stock is transferable, a corporation is not damaged by the death or disinterest of a particular owner. The owner can sell his or her shares at any time, or leave them to heirs.

The corporate form has some disadvantages, though. As dis­tinct legal entities, corporations must pay taxes. The dividends they pay to shareholders, unlike interest on bonds, are not tax-deductible business expenses. And when a corporation distrib­utes these dividends, the stockholders are taxed on the divi­dends. (Since the corporation already has paid taxes on its earnings, critics say that taxing dividend payments to share­holders amounts to "double taxation" of corporate profits.)

Many large corporations have a great number of owners, or shareholders. A major company may be owned by a million or more people, many of whom hold fewer than 100 shares of stock each. This widespread ownership has given many Americans a direct stake in some of the nation's biggest companies. By the mid-1990s, more than 40 percent of U.S. families owned common stock, directly or through mutual funds or other intermediaries.

But widely dispersed ownership also implies a separation of ownership and control. Because shareholders generally can­not know and manage the full details of a corporation's business, they elect a board of directors to make broad corporate policy. Typically, even members of a corporation's board of directors and managers own less than 5 percent of the common stock, though some may own far more than that. Individuals, banks, or retirement funds often own blocks of stock, but these hold­ings generally account for only a small fraction of the total. Usu­ally, only a minority of board members are operating officers of the corporation. Some directors are nominated by the company to give prestige to the board, others to provide certain skills or to represent lending institutions. It is not unusual for one person to serve on several different corporate boards at the same time.

Corporate boards place day-to-day management decisions in the hands of a chief executive officer (CEO), who may also be a board's chairman or president. The CEO supervises other exec­utives, including a number of vice presidents who oversee var­ious corporate functions, as well as the chief financial officer, the chief operating officer, and the chief information officer (CIO). The CIO came onto the corporate scene as high technology became a crucial part of U.S. business affairs in the late 1990s.

As long as a CEO has the confidence of the board of direc­tors, he or she generally is permitted a great deal of freedom in running a corporation. But sometimes, individual and institu­tional stockholders, acting in concert and backing dissident can­didates for the board, can exert enough power to force a change in management.

Generally, only a few people attend annual shareholder meetings. Most shareholders vote on the election of directors and important policy proposals by "proxy" — that is, by mail­ing in election forms. In recent years, however, some annual meetings have seen more shareholders — perhaps several hun • dred — in attendance. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Com­mission (SEC) requires corporations to give groups challenging management access to mailing lists of stockholders to present their views.