§ 162. The pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun which has a case opposite, whom, as in Whom did you meet?

However we observe here a distinct tendency to substi­tute the nominative case (who) for the objective (whom), which may eventually bring about the obliteration of case distinctions in the interrogative pronouns.

E. g. I went to the pictures. Who with? ' Who are you trying to deceive? (Buck)

Note. The unmarked member of the case opposeme who — whom occurs, as usual, more often than the marked member (whom). The ratio is approximately 9:1.

§ 163. The interrogative pronouns are used to form a definite type of sentence — special questions.

W h о told you tliat? What is the charge? (Hanley).

Charles Fries writes: "The expression Who came? signals a question not because of a different arrangement, but solely because the signal of question is in the word who as a word" ².

Connective Pronouns.

§ 164. The pronouns who, what, which, whose, that, w/геге, when, why, how are called 'connective' when they serve to connect clauses in complex sentences. At the same time they retain their meanings and functions of pro-nouns, pro-adjec-

¹ See M. West and P. F. Kimber. Deskbook of Correct English, Lnd., 1957, p. 168: "To whom did ijou give ifl" is correct, but stilted, it should be used only in formal writing, or in speeches, sermons, etc. Elsewhere "Who did цои give it to^" is the accepted form "Whom did you give it to~>" is a hybrid and has no justification

² The Structure of English New York, 1957.

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tives or pro-adverbs. This combination of function's is a typi­cal feature of the connective pronouns.

In accordance with their meaning and the types ol clauses they introduce they fall into two groups: conjunctive pro­nouns and relative pronouns.

§ 165. Conjunctive pronouns serving to introduce subject, predicative object and appositive clauses (sometimes united under the general name of "noun clauses" ') present a curious combination of a demonstrative meaning \\ith that of a con­junction. In What he knows is no longer a secret (Christie) what is equivalent to the Russian то, что... . Hence the term condensed pronouns used by some authors. The essence of the matter is that the antecedent of such a pronoun is not expressed either by a noun or a noun equivalent, 'the pro­noun itself doing duty for the antecedent as well ².

Compound conjunctive pronouns in -ever (whoevet, whatever, wherever, etc ) have an emphatic nature owing to which they may be used to introduce adverbial clauses of concession as well.

Don't c/wnge you/ plans, whatever happens. (Hornby).

Whatever lie says is of no importance.

§ 166. Relative pronouns are likewise used to introduce subordinate clauses. What makes them different from conjunc­tive pronouns is a) that they ser\e to introduce but one type of subordinate clauses — the so-called 'relative' clauses — a variety of attributive clauses, and b) that they are always correlated with some antecedent in the principal clause.

E. g All the while these two solitary strollers did not for a moment think on coincidence, which lingers at man's elbow with eiery crowd in every town. (Bradbury).

Antonio walked from the lumberyard to a window where stood fine new beds. (Ib.).

One of those few evenings when he worked late she visited with any one of several neighbours. (Bradbury).

Relative pronouns, like interrogative and conjunctive ones, distinguish 'person' and 'non-person' in opposing who

¹ See Л С Бархударов, Д. А. Ш т е л и н г, op cit , р. 87.

² G. Curme, op. cit , р 81.

" 109

used in reference to persons to which used in reference to non-persons.

Whose and that are applied both to persons and things.

§ 167. As mentioned above, both conjunctive and rela­tive pronouns fulfil a double syntactical function in the sen­tence: they are used as some part of the subordinate clause and as a connective structural element at the same time.

E. g. They all smiled upon that genius who now circled them with his arms. (Bradbury).

The relative pronoun who introducing the attribute clause is the subject of the subordinate clause.

Reciprocal Pronouns

§ 168. These are the group-pronouns — each other and one another. They serve to express mutuality, as in They helped each other (one a n o't h e r).

It is traditionally maintained that each other implies only two and one another more than two, but this rule is often ignored, one another and each other becoming interchange­able.

We (two p,ersons) ran across one another one morning near the Menin Gate — the place they called Hell Fire Corner. (Oxenham).

§ 169. The reciprocal pronouns share the noun case system.

Common case Possessive case

each other — each other's one another — one another's

§ 170. Reciprocal pronouns are used anaphorically, usu­ally with reference to the subject of the sentence (always plural). This accounts for the fact that I hey do not function as subjects. They mostly occur as objects (both preposition-less and prepositional) and attributes.

Resident hospital staff can get on each о t h e r's nerves. (Randall).

She was the offspring of two people who really lived for each other. (Randall).

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Indefinite Pronouns

§ 171. In grammatical tradition the class of indefinite pronouns is the most variegated of all '.- -It is said to include some, any, every, no (and their compounds), all, each, either, much, many, lew, little, etc., words of different lexical and grammatical nature.

We agree with V. N. Zhigadlo, 1. P. Ivanova and L. L. lo-fik ² that only the pronouns some, any and their compounds really indicate things, properties, etc. in an indefinite way. Therefore only these pronouns will be regarded here as indef­inite.

§ 172. Indefinite pronouns can be pro-nouns (some^ any, somebody, somebody's, anybody, anybody's, someone, some­one's, something, anything); pro-adjectives (some, any); pro-numerals (some, any); pro-adverbs (somewhere, somehow, anywhere, anyhow).

E.g. Some are wise and some are otherwise (pro­nouns).

/ read it in some book (pro-adjective). It was some years ago (pro-numeral).

§ 173. Like some other groups of pronouns the indefinite pronouns regularly occur in certain types of sentences. Some and its compounds usually indicating an indefinite quantity or quality as available ³ are mostly used in affirmative sen­tences (in about 75—77 per cent of all cases), whereas any and its compounds, without the connotation of 'availability', are generally used (in about 68—72 per cent of all cases) in interrogative and negative sentences⁴, or in conditional clauses.

E. g. There were a couple of periodicals and some letters

that had come by the second post. (Amis).

If she hasn't any sense of humour, it won't work. (Black) There mustn't be a n у American casualties, must there?

(Greene)

¹ See, for instance, M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya, op. cit., p. 88.

² Op. cit., p. 63.

³ А. С. Б a p x у д а р о в, Д. А. Ш т е л и н г, op. cit., p. 97.

⁴ It also occurs with negative words such as without or hardly. He has hardly any time. I had it without a n.y difficulty.

'ill

We must bear in mind, however, that some (and its com­pounds) occurs in interrogative sentences (very rarely in negative ones) to which an affirmative answer is expected or invited ' (that is, when the speaker proceeds from the availa­bility of some object, property, etc.)- May f have s о т е paper?

Any (and its compounds) may be used in affirmative sen­tences in the meaning of "every", "no matter which": You can buy stamps at a n у post-office. (Hornby).

§ 174. The compound indefinite pronouns in -body, -one, and -thing denote 'person' and 'non-person', the former being indicated by the words in -one and -body, the latter — by those in -thing,

E. g. A vague acceptance of this kind isn't any use to • anyone. (Amis).

You'll never do anything as good as that. (Maugham).

The compound indefinite pronouns in -body and -one have the noun system of cases represented in opposemes like somebody — somebody's, anyone — anyone's.

I can't see that it is a n у о п e's business but mine. (Heyer)

Negative Pronouns

§ 175. The negative pronouns are no, nobody, nobody's, none, nothing, neither, nowhere.

\ They can be used as pro-nouns (nobody, nobody's, none, neither, nothing), pro-adjectives (no, neither), as a pro-adverb (nowhere) and a pro numeral (none).

E. g. How many have you caught? — Nine as yet.

§ 176. Since Modern English admits of but one negation in a verbal construction ² the negative pronouns serve to build up negative sentences. Her fiance is n о w h e r e to be seen. (Randall). N о girl has died in there to-day. (Priestley)

§ 177. Like the other pronouns m -body, -one, and -thing the negative pronouns distinguish 'person' and 'non-person'

Neither refers both to animate and inanimate objects (two of them). In neither case can I agree. Both smil°d but neither spoke (Heyer).

Nobody — nobody's is a case opposeme of the noun type.

i A S Hornby E. V. Gatenby, H Wakefield. The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. London, 1958, p 1222. '- See "Syntax", § 413.

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Generalizing Pronouns

§ 178. Here belong such pronouns as all, both, each, either, every and its compounds (everyone, everybody, every­thing, everywhere) which give a generalizing indication of persons, things, properties and circumstances.

This group includes pro-nouns (all, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything); pro-adjectives and pro-numerals (every, each, all, both, either); pro-adverb (every­where) .

Alt, everybody, everything, everywhere, both may be said to have an inclusive, uniting meaning as opposed to every, each, either conveying a separating meaning '.

Unlike the indefinite and negative pronouns, the gener­alizing pronouns are not attached to any definite type of sentence.

Quantitative Pronouns

§ 179. Here belong much, many, (a) few, (a) little, several, enough, which may function as pro-nouns (much, many, (a) few, several, (a) little, enough); pro-adjectives (much, (a) little, enough); pro-numerals (many, several, (a) few); and pro-adverbs (much, (a) little, enough).

£. g. pro-nouns:

Many preferred the pianist with

his wonderful eyelashes. (Locke). Enough is as good as a feast.

(Proverb).

pro-adjective:

pro-numeral: pro-adverb:

/ don't see much nonsense when a girl goes and kills herself. (Priestley).

Many women think so. (Daily

for being

Worker). He cared but little

opposemes of

И о ф и к,

conspicuous.

§ 180. Most quantitative pronouns form с comparison:
	many	— more,	(the) most
	few	— fewer.	(the) fewest
	" much	— more,	(the) most
	little	— less.	(the) least.
op.	1 See В Н. Ж и г а д cit , p 67.	л о, и. П	Иванова, Л

113

It is characteristic that the quantitative pronouns indi­cating indefinite quantities may have the opposemes of comparison, whereas the numerals indicating definite quanti­ties admit of no comparison.

Contrasting Pronouns