§ 208. Participle II may have left-hand connections with link-verbs.

E. g. The young woman's face became illumined by a smile. (Galsworthy). / always took it for granted that when one got married, one was married for good. (lies) *.

Г. Н. Воронцова, op. cit , p. 229—231.

127

The combination of words thus formed is often homo-nymous with a 'passive voice' verb, as in His duty is ful­filled.

The group is fulfilled cannot be treated as the passive voice opposite of fulfils since

1. It does'not convey the idea of action, but that of state, the result of an action.

2. The sentence corresponds rather to He hSs fulfilled his duty than to He fulfils his duty, as the perfective meaning of participle II is particularly prominent.

§ 209. Some linguists ^x are against this interpretation. According to L. S. Barkhudarov and D. A. Shteling, the com­bination be + participle II should in all cases be treated as a 'passive voice' form on the ground that participle II is, first and foremost, a verb, the idea of state not being incident to this structure, but resulting from the lexical meaning of the verb and the context it occurs in.

Likewise, G. N. Vorontsova maintains that the passive form expresses either an action in its development or an action as an accomplished fact. In both cases we deal with the passive voice.

However, this theory cannot explain the absence of an active equivalent to As my work is f i n i s he d, I am free to go.

As shown by A. I. Smirnitsky ², The table is made of wood has no corresponding parallel with an active meaning.

It is also not clear,why other link-verbs may form combi­nations with participle II and the most frequent link-verb be cannot.

Cf. to s e e т forgotten, to l о о k lor gotten, to b e forgotten.

Examples like / was concealed and motionless (Wells), where participle II is coordinated with an adjective, prove its combinability with the link-verb be.

§ 210. The opposite extreme is to regard the combination of various link-verbs with participle II as analytical forms of the passive voice. G. N. Vorontsova objects to Curme's idea of become as a 'passive' auxiliary, but her own insistence

¹ Г. Н Воронцова op. cit., p. 234—235; Л даров, Д. А Штелинг, op cit., p. 147—148.

² А. И. С м и p н и ц к и и, op. cit., p. 264.

128

С. Б а р х у

on get as such an auxiliary ^J is not much more justified. The verb influence cannot have two (or more) 'passive voice' opposites (be influenced, get influenced, become influenced). These "opposites" must differ either lexically or grammati­cally. In the first case get and become are not word-morphemes. In the second case there must be several 'passive voices'. In our opinion the first is true. Become and get always retain some of their lexical meaning. Get usually introduces a pecu­liar sense of an activity or achievement on the part of the object of the action (Cf. He w a s appointed to the post and He g о t appointed to the post).

§ 211. Opinions differ as to the voice system of Modern English. -Though most linguists ², apparently, recognize only two voices in Modern English — the active voice and the passive voice, some speak also of the reflexive voice ³ (or neuter-reflexive ⁴) expressed with the help of the seman-tically weakened se/f-pronouns, as in He cut himself while shaving.

Besides the three voices mentioned above, B. A. Ilyish ⁵ finds two more voices in Modern English — 'the reciprocal' voice expressed with the help of each other, one another and 'the neuter' ('middle') voice as seen in The door opened, The numbers would not add, The words formed in his head, The college was filling up, etc.

These theories do not carry much conviction:

1. In cases like He washed himself it is not the verb that is reflexive but the pronoun himself used as a direct object.

2. Washed and himself are words belonging to different lexemes. They have different lexical and grammatical mean­ ings.

3. If we regard washed himself as an analytical word, it is necessary to admit that the verb has the categories of gender (washed himself — washed herself), person — non- person (washed himself — washed itself), that the categories

¹ See, for instance, Г. Н. Воронцова, op. cit., p. 228.

² А. И. С м и p н и ц к и и, op. cit., p. 230, p. 265—270; Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Ш т е л и н г, op. cit., р. 145; Г. Н. В о- р о н ц о в a, op. cit., p. 225.

³ В. Н. Ж и г а д л о, И. П. И в а н о в а, Л. Л. И о ф и к, op. cit., p. 137—141.

⁴Каушанская and others, op. cit., p. 81. 6 Б. А. Ильиш, op. cit., p. 193—194.

Б Хаймович и др. 129

of number and person are expressed twice in the word washes himself, etc.

4. Similar objections can be raised against regarding washed each other, washed one another as analytical forms of the reciprocal voice. The difference between 'each other' and 'one another' would become a grammatical category of the verb. .

5. A number of verbs express the 'reflexive' and 'recipro­ cal' meanings without the corresponding pronouns.

E. g. He always washes in cold water. Kiss and b e friends.

6) Different meanings of open, add, etc. have already been treated (see § 200).

The Category of Order (Time Correlation)

§ 212. The category of order is a system of two-member opposemes, such as writes — has written, wrote — had writ­ten, writing — having written, to be written — to have been written, etc. showing whether the action is viewed as prior to ('perfect'), or irrespective of ('non-perfect'), ether actions or situations. The interpretation of this category belongs to the most controversial problems of English grammar.