Text 2 How Cultures Differ

Vocabulary notes

explicit

participant

neighborhood

responsible

vital

to eliminate

intercultural

misunderstanding

insulting

insensitive

conversely

frequent

reluctant

- ясный

- участник

- соседство

- ответственный

- жизненный

- устранять

- межкультурный

- непонимание

- оскорбительный

- нечувствительный

- наоборот

- частый

- сопротивляющийся

There are at least three major ways in which cultures differ that are especially important for communication. Following Hofstede (1983, 1997) Gudykunst (1991), and Hall and Hall (1987) we discuss collectivism and individualism, high and low context, and power distances.

Individual and Collective Orientation

Cultures differ in the extent to which they promote individual values (for exam­ple, power, achievement, hedonism, and stimulation) versus collectivist values or example, benevolence, tradition, and conformity).

In an individualistic-oriented culture members are responsible for themselves and perhaps their immediate family. In a collectivist culture members are responsible for the entire group.

Success, in an individualistic culture, is measured by the extent to which you Surpass other members of your group; you would take pride in standing out from the crowd. And your heroes — in the media, for example — are likely to be those who are unique and who stand apart. In a collectivist culture success is measured by your contribution to the achievements of the group as a whole; you would take pride in your similarity to other members of your group. Your heroes, in contrast, are more likely to be team players who do not stand out from the rest of the group's members.

In an individualistic culture you are responsible to your own conscience and responsibility is largely an individual matter; in a collectivist culture you are responsible to the rules of the social group and responsibility for an accomplishment or a failure is shared by all members. Competition is fostered in individualistic cultures while cooperation is promoted in collectivist cultures.

Distinctions between in-group members and out-group members are extremely important in collectivist cultures. In individualistic cultures, where the person's individuality is prized, the distinction is likely to be less important.

High- and Low-Context Cultures

Cultures also differ in the extent to which information is made explicit, on the one hand, or is assumed to be in the context or in the persons communicating, on the other. A high-context culture is one in which much of the information in communication is in the context or in the person — for example, information that was shared through previous communications, through assumptions about each other, and through shared experiences. The information is thus known by all participants but it is not explicitly stated in the verbal message. A low-context cul­ture is one in which most of the information is explicitly stated in the verbal message. In formal transactions it would be stated in written (or contract) form.

High-context cultures are also collectivist cultures (Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, and Chua 1988; Gudykunst and Kim 1992). These cultures (Japanese, Arabic, Latin American, Thai, Korean, Apache, and Mexican are examples) place great emphasis on personal relationships and oral agreements (Victor 1992). Low-context cultures are also individualistic cultures. These cultures (German, Swedish, Norwegian, and American are examples) place less emphasis on personal relationships and more emphasis on the verbalized, explicit explanation and, for example, on the written contracts in business transactions.

Members of high-context cultures spend lots of time getting to know each other interpersonally and socially before any important transactions take place. Because of this prior personal knowledge a great deal of information is shared by the members and therefore does not have to be explicitly stated. Members of low-context cultures spend a great deal less time getting to know each other and hence do not have that shared knowledge. As a result everything has to be stated explicitly.

To high-context cultural members what is omitted or assumed is a vital part of the communication transaction. Silence, for example, is highly valued (Basso 1972). To low-context cultural members what is omitted creates ambiguity And to this person this ambiguity will be eliminated by explicit and direct communication. To high-context cultural members ambiguity is something to be avoided; it is a sign that the interpersonal and social interactions have not proved sufficient to establish a shared base of information (Gudykunst 1983).

When this simple difference is not understood, intercultural misunderstandings can easily result. For example, the directness characteristic of the low-context culture may prove insulting, insensitive, or unnecessary to the high-context cultural member. Conversely, to the low-context member, the high-context cultural member may appear vague, underhanded, or dishonest in his or her reluctance to be explicit or engage in communication that a low-context member would consider open and direct.

EXERCISE 1.

Word-Building. Make-up nouns from the following verbs with the help of suffixes:

To confront –

To orient –

To relate –

To agree –

To explain –

To know –

EXERCISE 2.

Make up nouns and adverbs from the following adjectives:

Explicit –

Important –

Responsible –

Able –

Individual –

Reluctant –

EXERCISE 3.

Find modal verbs in the text and translate the sentences with them into Russian.

EXERCISE 4.

Find the examples of Passive Voice in the text and translate the sentences into Russian

EXERCISE 5.

Divide the text into logical parts and make up a plan of the text.

EXERCISE 6.

Answer the following questions:

1. What are high-context cultures?

2. What are low context cultures?

3. Name the countries with high-context culture and with low-context culture.

4. Give examples of intercultural misunderstandings.

5. How do you understand the expressions “face saving” and “to lose face”? Explain in English.

EXERCISE 7.

Summarize the material on three ways in which cultures differ and give your own examples.

EXERCISE 8.

Put down a plan of the text.

EXERCISE 9.

Write an essay on the ideas discussed in the text.

EXERCISE 10.

Find parentheses in the text, translate them and the sentences in which they were used.

EXERCISE 11.

Find the examples of Gerund and the Participles in the text. Define their functions and translate the sentences into Russian.