8. The problem of suffixation

The process of suffixation consists in coining a new word by adding a suffix or several suffixes to some root morpheme. The role of the suffix in this procedure is very important and therefore it is necessary to consider certain facts about the main types of suffixes. Suffixes: leaving (can be singles out) and dead. Suffixes: native and borrowed. Native: 1)noun-forming: -er, -ness, -ing, -dom, -th; 2)adjective-forming: -ful, -less, -y, -ish, -ly, -some; 3)verb-forming: -en; 4)adverb-forming: -ly. Borrowed: latin: 1)noun-forming: -tion; 2)verb-forming: -ate, -ute, -ct, -d(de); 3)adjective-forming: -able, -ant, -or, -al, -ar; french: 1)noun-forming: -ence, -ment,- ess, -age, -ance; 2)adjective-forming: -ous.

Suffixes: productive (create new words, whenever need arises); non-productive (don’t create new words); limited-productivity. Productive: noun:-er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance; adjective:-y, -ish, -ed, -able, -less; adverb:-ly; verb: -ize, -ise, -ate; Non-productive: noun: -th, -hood; adjective: -ly, -some, -en, -ous; verb: -утю

Meanings of suffixes

Woman, womanly(женственная), womanish(о мужчине)

Noun: -er, -or (doer of the action, profession, impliments орудие, objects: professor, doctor); -ism (doctrine, belief); -ist (one, who...:optimist); -man (doer of the action: sportsman); -nik (borrowed from russian – objects, phenomena: sputnik); -ness (state of being: madness); -hood (abstract objects: neighbourhood); -dom, -ship (collectivity: boredom); -let, -ic(demenative - уменьшительный); Verb: -ize, -ise (become... like: critisize); -ate (become, make a cause: congratulate); -en (become, made of: enlighten - просвещать); Adjective: -an, -ish, -ese (nationality: spanish); -able, -ible (able to do smth: eatable); -ful (notible for: meaningful); -ic, -ical; -y (characterized by: hairy); -less (without: endless); -ish (having the quality of: selfish); -ess (gender: mistress)

9. Prefixation

The process of prefixation consists in coining a new word by adding a prefix to some root morpheme. The role of the prefix in this procedure is very important and therefore it is necessary to consider certain facts about the main types of prefixes.

Classification:

1)according to lexical-grammatical character: 1)deverbal (write - rewrite); 2)denominal (president - expresident); 3)deadjective (easy - uneasy), 2)according to class of words: 1)verb-forming (close - enclose); 2)noun-forming (smoker – non-smoker); 3)adjective-forming (fair - unfair); 4)adverb-forming (unfortunately); 3)semantically: 1)monosemantic (“ex” – former: ex-girlfriend); 2)polisemantic (dis – not, reversal, removal, completeness); 4)according to their genetalising denotational meaning: 1) negative (disloyal); 2) reversative (disconect); 3) pejorative уничижительный (misprounance); 4)of time and order (post-war); 5)of repetition (rebuild); 6)locative (subway); 5)according to their stylistic reference

10. Word-composition (types, classification)

Compositio is oneof the oldest and most productive means of word building. Word composition is the process of making up new words by joining together 2 or more stems. A compound word is a language unit composed of 2 or more stems which together represent a structural & semantic unity. (Ex: dogdays – жаркие дни, earthquake, fifty-fifty, flight-by-night – безответственный человек). Compound words may be found in any part of speech. And they’re formed from words in use according to certain patterns, which are typical of the english language. (Ex; fly-agaric – мухомор, to broadcast -вещать, somebody, sometimes, into). Compound words may be built after the folowing structural formulars: N+adj (smowwhite); N+N (guinea-pig – подопытный кролик), N+gerund (heart-breaking), Adj+N (hotdog), N+verb-er (bottle-opener, chain-smoker); verb+adverb (breakdown). Most compounds in english belong to adjectives & nouns.

The difference between affixation & composition is as follows. A compound word is the result of the process of condensing( сжатие) a free sentactical group into a word. (Ex: progressive ideas are washed away from the brain – brainwash; a person walks in his sleep - sleepwalker). A derivative (производное слово) is the result of the mental process of analogy due to which a new word is constructed on the bases of imitation of the structure of existing words. (Ex: kingdom, friendship)

Compound words in English may be of the following types: 1)Two stems merely joined together without a linking element (hanhouse); 2)Stems jpined with one of the linking elements (o,i,s) (anglosaxons, sportsman, handiwork); 3)Derived compounds formed by means of a suffix which refers to the combination of stems as a whole. The derivational compounds are the result of 2 acts of word building – composition & derivation. (Ex: broad-shouldered, short-tempered, skyscraper, absent-minded, double-faced, madonafaced, smallminded); 4)Sentactical compounds. They are formed after the pattern of a free word group (Ex; bluebell, sweetheart, killjoy, pickpocket); 5)A group of compounds consisting of a shorten stem and a normal stem (Ex: H-bomb, D-day, V-day, G-man); 6)Compound words formed by the way of isolating sentagms. Two or more stems joined by means of conjunctions and prepositions (Ex: son-in-law, man-of-war, Jack-of-all-trades, bread-and-butter).

Compound words may be subdivided into 2 groups on the basis of relationship between the components. 1)Coordinative (соединит) compounds, which reveal a semantic equality between the components (fifty-fifty, secretary-stenographer, willy-nilly); 2)Subordinative compounds – in which the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal (wrist-watch, woman-doctor). In these compounds one of the components, usually the 2^nd one is the structural and semantic center, the other component only defining it or limiting its meaning. As to the order of components subordinated compound words may fall into 2 groups: 1)sentactic compounds with a direct order of components (bluebell, daytime); 2)semantic compounds with a reversed order of words (oilrich – rich in oil, tearstained – stained with tears).

Semantically compound words may be ideomatic & non-ideomatic. The meaning of the whole compound word may depend on the meaning of both components as in “blue-eyed”, “broad-shouldered”, “far-seeing”. The semantic relationship of the compounds is direct and transparent (прозрачн). Both components retain their lexical meaning & the meaning of the whole compound is easily dedused from the meanings of its parts. This is the reason why we so readily find a semantically equivalent free combination consisting of words of the same root. Such compound words are non-ideomatic. In some cases the semantic structure of a compound word is not so definite (Ex; blackboard – not black, not made of board; dog-eared – refers to the pages of the book; a slow-coach - туповатый). As can be seen the relationship of the elements is not direct, not transparent. The meaning of the whole word is not easily seen from the meanings of the parts. If the meaning of a compound cannot be dedused from the meanings of its components it is called ideomatic (Ex: snowdrop – подснежник, ladykiller, wallflower, ladybird). As some compound words possess an ideomatic meaning they’re sometimes confused with phraseological units, such as blind alley, redtape – бюрократизм, bestman – шафер. Non-ideomatic compound words are often confused with free word groups from which they have originated. Antrushina suggests the following classification: 1)neutral compounds (to them she refers simple compounds, derived & contracted): simple – formed without linking elements: sunflower; derived: honeymooner; contracted: H-bomb, TV-set; 2)morphological compounds – formed with the help of a linking element and they are few in number (statesman, handicraft); 3)sentactic compounds – formed from segments of speech (lilly-of-the-valley ландыш, good-for-nothing не годный). To this group are also referred such compounds as: sit-at-home, know-all, go-between посредник, whodunit детектив.

Compoundwords differ from all other types of words by their inseparability цельнооформленность, which is expressed through the unity of their structural, phonetic and grafic inregrity.