- •Практическая грамматика английского языка (морфология)
- •Accidence
- •Special difficulties in the use of articles
- •§ 40. Omission of the Article Chapter III. The adjective
- •The Indefinite Form
- •The Continuous Form
- •Grammatical structure of the english language
- •§ 1. Languages may be synthetic and analytical according to their grammatical structure.
- •§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
- •§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
- •Accidence general classification of the parts of speech
- •Chapter I
- •§ 1. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
- •§ 2. The noun has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. The noun has certain syntactical characteristics.
- •§ 4. The Morphological composition of nouns.
- •§ 5. The Classification of nouns.
- •1) Class nouns,
- •3) Nouns of material
- •4) Abstract nouns.
- •§ 6. The category of number.
- •§ 7. The category of case.
- •§1. General notion.
- •§ 2. Functions of the Article.
- •§ 1. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
- •§ 2. The use of the definite article with class nouns.
- •§ 3. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes.
- •§ 4. Additional notes on the Use of the Definite article.
- •§ 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used.
- •§ 6. When a definite part of the substance is meant (when the noun is modified by a particularizing attribute or is made definite by the situation), the definite article is used.
- •§ 7. When an indefinite part of the substance is meant, some is used.
- •§ 8. When abstract nouns are used in a general sense, no article is used.
- •§ 9. When abstract nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes the idea definite modifies abstract nouns, they are used with the definite article.
- •§ 12. Names of persons.
- •§ 13. Geographical names.
- •§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
- •§ 15. Names of cardinal points.
- •§ 16. Names of months and days.
- •§ 17. The use of articles with nouns modified by proper nouns.
- •§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article.
- •§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns.
- •§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition.
- •§ 23. Class nouns used in address take no article.
- •§ 24. Place of the article.
- •§25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian.
- •§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening.
- •§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons.
- •§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
- •§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town.
- •§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals.
- •§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages.
- •§ 32. Most.
- •§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little.
- •§ 34. Two, the two, three, the three etc.
- •§ 35. The second, a second.
- •§ 36. Another, the other.
- •§ 37. Last, the last.
- •§ 38. Next, the next.
- •§ 39. A number, the number.
- •§ 40. Omission of the Article
- •Chapter III
- •§ 1. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance.
- •§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. Spelling rules.
- •§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
- •§ 5. The Morphological composition of the adjective.
- •§ 6. The Classification of adjectives.
- •§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
- •§8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
- •§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.
- •Chapter IV
- •§ 1. The pronoun is a part of speech, which points out objects and their qualities without naming or describing them.
- •§ 2. The Classification of pronouns.
- •§ 3. Personal pronouns.
- •§ 4. Possessive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 5. Reflexive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
- •§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
- •§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
- •§ 9. Relative pronouns.
- •§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
- •§ 11. Defining pronouns.
- •§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
- •§ 13. Negative pronouns.
- •§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech, which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
- •§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
- •§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
- •§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
- •§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake etc.
- •§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
- •§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
- •§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
- •§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
- •§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
- •§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech, which expresses various emotions without naming them.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
- •§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
- •Chapter X
- •§ 1. The preposition is a form-word, which has no independent lexical meaning and is used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
- •§2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
- •§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
- •§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech, which hasn’t independent lexical meaning of its own, but serves to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses.
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
- •§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes
- •§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
- •Chapter XII
- •§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
- •Chapter XIII the verb
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.
- •§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.
- •§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
- •§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb, which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
- •§10. Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
- •The Present Indefinite.
- •§ 1. The use of the Present Indefinite.
- •The Past Indefinite
- •§ 2. The use of the Past Indefinite.
- •The Future Indefinite
- •§ 3. The use of the Future Indefinite.
- •The Continuous Form
- •The Present Continuous
- •§ 4. The Present Continuous is used:
- •The Past Continuous
- •§ 5. The use of the Past Continuous.
- •The Future Continuous
- •§ 6. The use of the Future Continuous.
- •Verbs not used in the Continuous form
- •The Perfect Form
- •The Present Perfect
- •§ 7. The use of the Present Perfect.
- •§ 8. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.
- •The Past Perfect
- •§ 9. The use of the Past Perfect.
- •§ 10. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
- •§ 11. The use of the Future Perfect.
- •The Perfect Continuous Form
- •§ 12. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 13. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
- •§ 14. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •The Past Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 15.We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •§ 16. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.
- •§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.
- •The Passive Voice
- •§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.
- •§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
- •Indefinite
- •Continuous
- •Perfect
- •§ 20. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.
- •§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
- •§ 22. The Passive Voice and the Nominal Predicate.
- •Modal verbs
- •§ 4. Must.
- •§ 5. Should and ought.
- •§ 8. Shall.
- •§ 9. Will.
- •§ 10. Would.
- •§ 11. Dare.
- •§12. Need.
- •The Indicative Mood
- •The Imperative Mood
- •The Subjunctive Mood
- •§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
- •§ 4. In modern English the forms of the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect Indicative are used to express unreality.
- •1. Simple sentences
- •§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
- •2. Complex sentences.
- •§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
- •§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
- •§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
- •§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
- •Chapter XIV
- •§ 1. The verbals are three in number: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. The verbals combine the characteristics of the verb with those of some other parts of speech.
- •§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
- •The participle
- •§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.
- •§ 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions.
- •§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence.
- •§ 9. Predicative constructions with the Participle.
- •§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.
- •It published.
- •§12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
- •The gerund
- •§ 16. The double nature of the gerund.
- •§ 17. The tense distinctions of the gerund.
- •§18. The voice distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 21. The use of the gerund.
- •§ 22. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
- •§ 23. The gerund and the infinitive.
- •§ 24. The gerund and the participle.
- •§ 26. The tense and aspect distinctions of the Infinitive. Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the Infinitive are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 27. The voice distinctions of the Infinitive.
- •§ 28. The use of the Infinitive without the particle to (the bare
- •Infinitive).
- •§ 29. The functions of the Infinitive in the sentence.
- •§ 30. Infinitive constructions.
- •§ 31. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 32. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Subjective Infinitive Construction
- •§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
§ 30. Infinitive constructions.
In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the infinitive:
1) the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction;
2) the Subjective Infinitive Construction;
3) the for-to-Infinitive Construction.
§ 31. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
This is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object.
In translating the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction into Russian we nearly always use a subordinate clause.
He's a wonderful teacher and I've never seen him lose his temper or get angry about anything. (Wilson)
Он замечательный учитель, и я никогда не видел, чтобы он вышел из себя или рассердился из-за чего-нибудь.
However, sometimes a sentence containing the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is rendered by a simple sentence.
He ordered the cabman to drive on. (London)
Он приказал кэбмену ехать дальше.
... the bombings at night made the old walls shake to their foundations. (Heym)
... от ночных бомбежек старые стены содрогались до самого основания (бомбежки заставляли стены содрогаться).
The use of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
1. The Construction is used after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to hear, to see, to watch, to feel, to observe, to notice, etc.
He felt Wilson take hold of his arm. (Hemingway)
Он почувствовал как Вильсон взял его за руку.
I haven't heard anyone call me. (Wilde)
Я не слышал, чтобы кто-нибудь меня звал.
I saw Brown enter the room. (Bralne)
Я видел, как Браун вошел в комнату.
After verbs of sense perception only the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is passive we use Participle II.
I saw the fire slowly conquered. (Collins)
Я видел, как пожар постепенно потушили.
If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active is used.
He saw Fleur coming. (Galsworthy)
Note 1. The verb to see is followed by a clause and not by the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction when it is not really a verb of sense perception, i. e. when it means 'to understand'.
I saw that he did not realize the danger.
Я видел (понимал), что он не сознает опасности.
After the verbs to see and to notice the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is not used with the verb to be, a subordinate clause is used in such cases.
I saw that he was pale,
Note 2. When the verb to hear is not a verb of sense perception, i. e. when it means 'to learn', 'to be told', a clause or a gerund (and not the Objective-with-the-infinitive) is used.
I hear that he retired. (of his having retired).
Я слышал (мне сказали), что он вышел в отставку.
2. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting mental activity, such as to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel, to trust, etc.
We believe him to finish the work in two days.
Мы считаем, что он закончит работу через два дня.
No one could expect her to be happy.
Никто не мог ожидать, что она будет счастлива.
Note. With the verbs to think, to consider, to find the same idea can be expressed without an infinitive.
Boldwood thought her beautiful. (Hardy)
She found the subject rather interesting. (Dickens)
You consider yourself an impressive person, eh? (Shaw)
3. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.
The surgeon pronounced the wound to be a slight one.
Врач сказал, что рана легкая.
She declared him to be the most disobedient child.
Она заявила, что это самый непослушный ребенок на свете.
4. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting wish and intention: to want, to wish, to desire, to mean, to intend, to choose (in the meaning of 'хотеть').
Do you wish me to be at home earlier?
Вы хотите, чтобы я была дома пораньше?
I want you to come and dine with me. (Dickens)
Я хочу, чтобы вы пришли пообедать со мной.
I did not mean you to learn the poem by heart.
Я не имел ввиду, чтобы вы выучили стихотворение наизусть.
5. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs and expressions denoting feeling and emotion: to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, cannot bear, etc.
I can’t bear you to be unhappy.
Я не могу вынести того, что ты несчастна.
I dislike you to talk like that.
Я не люблю, когда вы так говорите.
6. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting order and permission: to order, to allow, to suffer, to have, to recommend, etc.
I cannot allow this matter to go any further.
Я не могу позволить, чтобы это продолжалось дальше.
The doctor recommended the medicine to be taken twice a day.
Доктор рекомендовал принимать лекарство дважды в день.
He ordered the door to be thrown open.
Он приказал, чтобы распахнули дверь.
Mr. Dombey suffered Florence to play with Paul. (Dickens)
Мистер Домби неохотно разрешил (позволил скрепя сердце) Флоренс играть с Полем.
Miss Jemima could not suffer Becky to Ieave the Academy without a present.
Мисс Джемайма не могла допустить, чтобы Бекки уехала из пансиона без подарка.
I won't have you speak like it, dear Tess! (Hardy)
Я не могу допустить, чтобы вы так говорили, милая Тэсс!
I can’t have you ruin your reputation.
Я не могу допустить, чтобы ты испортила свою репутацию.
Note. After such verbs as to order and to allow the Infinitive in the Active Voice can be used only when these verbs are followed by an object denoting a person who is ordered or allowed to do something.
The dean allowed the secretary to change the time-table. (Here we find two direct objects and not the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.) Such sentences as "the dean ordered to change the time-table" are impossible in English whereas in Russian they are widely used: "Декан разрешил изменить расписание". So when translating such sentences into English we use the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction where the Infinitive is in the Passive Voice.
The dean allowed the time-table to be changed.
From these examples we see that the verb to suffer, when followed by the Objective-with-the-Infinitive, is rendered in affirmative sentences by неохотно разрешить, позволить (скрепя сердце). In negative sentences it is rendered by допускать. The verb to have denotes permission only in negative sentences; it is very close in meaning to the verb to suffer and is translated in the same way.
7. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting compulsion: to make (in the meaning of 'заставить'), to cause (in the meaning of 'заставить', 'распорядиться'), to get (in the meaning of 'добиться'), to have (in the meaning of 'заставить; сказать чтобы').
She caused a telegram to be sent to him. (Galsworthy)
Она заставила послать ему телеграмму.
The sunlight was making the pink cliffs glow. (Galsworthy)
Солнечный свет заставлял розовые скалы светиться.
They made him tell the truth.
Они заставили его сказать правду.
I cannot get her to finish her lessons.
Я не могу добиться, чтобы она закончила свои уроки.
The teacher had his students write a composition.
Учитель велел студентам написать сочинение.