- •Практическая грамматика английского языка (морфология)
- •Accidence
- •Special difficulties in the use of articles
- •§ 40. Omission of the Article Chapter III. The adjective
- •The Indefinite Form
- •The Continuous Form
- •Grammatical structure of the english language
- •§ 1. Languages may be synthetic and analytical according to their grammatical structure.
- •§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
- •§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
- •Accidence general classification of the parts of speech
- •Chapter I
- •§ 1. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
- •§ 2. The noun has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. The noun has certain syntactical characteristics.
- •§ 4. The Morphological composition of nouns.
- •§ 5. The Classification of nouns.
- •1) Class nouns,
- •3) Nouns of material
- •4) Abstract nouns.
- •§ 6. The category of number.
- •§ 7. The category of case.
- •§1. General notion.
- •§ 2. Functions of the Article.
- •§ 1. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
- •§ 2. The use of the definite article with class nouns.
- •§ 3. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes.
- •§ 4. Additional notes on the Use of the Definite article.
- •§ 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used.
- •§ 6. When a definite part of the substance is meant (when the noun is modified by a particularizing attribute or is made definite by the situation), the definite article is used.
- •§ 7. When an indefinite part of the substance is meant, some is used.
- •§ 8. When abstract nouns are used in a general sense, no article is used.
- •§ 9. When abstract nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes the idea definite modifies abstract nouns, they are used with the definite article.
- •§ 12. Names of persons.
- •§ 13. Geographical names.
- •§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
- •§ 15. Names of cardinal points.
- •§ 16. Names of months and days.
- •§ 17. The use of articles with nouns modified by proper nouns.
- •§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article.
- •§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns.
- •§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition.
- •§ 23. Class nouns used in address take no article.
- •§ 24. Place of the article.
- •§25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian.
- •§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening.
- •§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons.
- •§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
- •§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town.
- •§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals.
- •§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages.
- •§ 32. Most.
- •§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little.
- •§ 34. Two, the two, three, the three etc.
- •§ 35. The second, a second.
- •§ 36. Another, the other.
- •§ 37. Last, the last.
- •§ 38. Next, the next.
- •§ 39. A number, the number.
- •§ 40. Omission of the Article
- •Chapter III
- •§ 1. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance.
- •§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. Spelling rules.
- •§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
- •§ 5. The Morphological composition of the adjective.
- •§ 6. The Classification of adjectives.
- •§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
- •§8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
- •§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.
- •Chapter IV
- •§ 1. The pronoun is a part of speech, which points out objects and their qualities without naming or describing them.
- •§ 2. The Classification of pronouns.
- •§ 3. Personal pronouns.
- •§ 4. Possessive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 5. Reflexive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
- •§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
- •§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
- •§ 9. Relative pronouns.
- •§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
- •§ 11. Defining pronouns.
- •§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
- •§ 13. Negative pronouns.
- •§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech, which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
- •§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
- •§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
- •§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
- •§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake etc.
- •§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
- •§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
- •§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
- •§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
- •§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
- •§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech, which expresses various emotions without naming them.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
- •§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
- •Chapter X
- •§ 1. The preposition is a form-word, which has no independent lexical meaning and is used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
- •§2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
- •§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
- •§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech, which hasn’t independent lexical meaning of its own, but serves to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses.
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
- •§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes
- •§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
- •Chapter XII
- •§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
- •Chapter XIII the verb
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.
- •§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.
- •§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
- •§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb, which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
- •§10. Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
- •The Present Indefinite.
- •§ 1. The use of the Present Indefinite.
- •The Past Indefinite
- •§ 2. The use of the Past Indefinite.
- •The Future Indefinite
- •§ 3. The use of the Future Indefinite.
- •The Continuous Form
- •The Present Continuous
- •§ 4. The Present Continuous is used:
- •The Past Continuous
- •§ 5. The use of the Past Continuous.
- •The Future Continuous
- •§ 6. The use of the Future Continuous.
- •Verbs not used in the Continuous form
- •The Perfect Form
- •The Present Perfect
- •§ 7. The use of the Present Perfect.
- •§ 8. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.
- •The Past Perfect
- •§ 9. The use of the Past Perfect.
- •§ 10. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
- •§ 11. The use of the Future Perfect.
- •The Perfect Continuous Form
- •§ 12. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 13. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
- •§ 14. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •The Past Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 15.We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •§ 16. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.
- •§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.
- •The Passive Voice
- •§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.
- •§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
- •Indefinite
- •Continuous
- •Perfect
- •§ 20. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.
- •§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
- •§ 22. The Passive Voice and the Nominal Predicate.
- •Modal verbs
- •§ 4. Must.
- •§ 5. Should and ought.
- •§ 8. Shall.
- •§ 9. Will.
- •§ 10. Would.
- •§ 11. Dare.
- •§12. Need.
- •The Indicative Mood
- •The Imperative Mood
- •The Subjunctive Mood
- •§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
- •§ 4. In modern English the forms of the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect Indicative are used to express unreality.
- •1. Simple sentences
- •§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
- •2. Complex sentences.
- •§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
- •§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
- •§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
- •§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
- •Chapter XIV
- •§ 1. The verbals are three in number: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. The verbals combine the characteristics of the verb with those of some other parts of speech.
- •§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
- •The participle
- •§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.
- •§ 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions.
- •§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence.
- •§ 9. Predicative constructions with the Participle.
- •§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.
- •It published.
- •§12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
- •The gerund
- •§ 16. The double nature of the gerund.
- •§ 17. The tense distinctions of the gerund.
- •§18. The voice distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 21. The use of the gerund.
- •§ 22. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
- •§ 23. The gerund and the infinitive.
- •§ 24. The gerund and the participle.
- •§ 26. The tense and aspect distinctions of the Infinitive. Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the Infinitive are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 27. The voice distinctions of the Infinitive.
- •§ 28. The use of the Infinitive without the particle to (the bare
- •Infinitive).
- •§ 29. The functions of the Infinitive in the sentence.
- •§ 30. Infinitive constructions.
- •§ 31. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 32. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Subjective Infinitive Construction
- •§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.
The Future Perfect Continuous denotes an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment.
In ten minutes we’ll have been waiting for the bus for
exactly an hour.
The Passive Voice
The Passive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb.
§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.
The Passive Voice can be used:
a) without the doer of the action being mentioned for some special reasons (tact or delicacy of feeling).
Enough has been said here of a subject which will be treated more fully in a subsequent chapter.
You have been told so many times not to touch these things.
b) when the doer of the action is unknown or unimportant
A lot of money was stolen in the robbery.
Is this room cleaned every day?
c) with the doer of the action being mentioned. This occurs only when the doer of the action is to some extent emphasized. The noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action is introduced by the preposition by.
This house was built by my grandfather.
Two hundred people are employed by the company.
§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
The uses of tenses in the Active and in the Passive Voice are the same.
Indefinite
Present The letter is written.
Past The letter was written.
Future The letter will be written.
Continuous
Present The letter is being written.
Past The letter was being written.
To express an action going on at a definite moment in the future only the Future Continuous Active is possible. Thus the Russian sentence «Когда вы придете, опыт уже будет производиться» must be translated in the following way:
When you come, we shall already be making the experiment.
Perfect
Present The letter has been written.
Past The letter had been written.
Future The letter will have been written.
§ 20. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.
There are three ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian:
а) by the verb “быть” + краткое страдательное причастие. In the Present the verb “быть” is not used.
b) by verbs in -ся.
c) by means of indefinite-personal constructions (неопределенно- личное предложение). The last way of translating is possible only if the doer of the action is not mentioned.
Houses are built of stone.
Дома строятся из камня.
The house was built in 1932.
Дом был построен в 1932 году./ Дом построили в 1932 году. The experiment was made by a famous scientist.
Опыт был произведен/ производился известным ученым.
§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice seems to Russian students very peculiar because we find no analogous constructions in Russian. These cases are as follows:
1. The verbs to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid (rare), to forgive, to give, to grant, to offer, to order, to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice. These verbs always take an object expressed by a noun or an infinitive. The action expressed by the Passive Predicate passes onto the subject and the object. The subject corresponds to the Russian indirect object.
When I came a telegram was given to me.
A good job was offered to me but I had to turn it down.
The patient was prescribed a strict diet.
He was ordered a change of scene.
We were told to wait.
Note. These verbs admit of another type of passive construction if the object is expressed by a noun. Thus we can say not only I was given a book, He was shown a book, but also A book was given to me, A book was shown to him. The choice of the construction depends on the logical stress: in I was given a book, He was shown a book the thing given is emphasized, which occurs oftener; in The book was given to me, The book was shown to him the person is emphasized.
2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account for, to agree upon, to allude to, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear of, to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look down upon (смотреть на кого-либо сверху вниз), to look up to (смотреть на кого-либо снизу вверх), to put up with (примириться), to read to, to refer to, to rely on, to run over, to send for, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to, over).
You have been a good deal talked about.
At last an agreement was arrived at.
Her strange behavior was largely commented upon.
He can be depended upon to keep strict silence.
This is certainly a great inconvenience, but it must
be put up with.
The composite verb to do away with can be used in the Passive Voice.
In our country illiteracy was done away with many years ago.
Note.– To send for can be used only in connection with people.
The doctor was sent for. The secretary will be sent for.
Послать за лекарством (книгой) should be translated in the following way: to send somebody to fetch the medicine (the book). But we can say: A car (a cab, a taxi) was sent for.
3. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Passive Voice: to find fault with (придираться к кому-либо), to lose sight of (терять из виду), to make a fool of smb., to make fun of, to make use of (использовать), to pay attention to, to put an end to (положить конец), to set fire to, to take notice of, to take care of.
It’s all taken care of.
You are being made a fool of, that’s all.
The boat was soon lost sight of.
His remarks were taken no notice of.
The discussion was put an end to by his sudden arrival.
4. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with the preposition in.
The occupant of the room was fully clothed, though the bed had been slept in.
The room looked as if it hadn’t been lived in for years.
5. There are a number of transitive verbs in English, which correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to join, to watch.
These verbs naturally admit of the passive construction while their Russian equivalents cannot be used in the Passive Voice.
She was greatly affected by the scene.
The report was followed by a discussion.
Walter Scott's poetry was strongly influenced by
the popular ballads.
Such sentences are rendered in Russian by indefinite-personal sentences (неопределенно- личные предложения) unless the doer of the action is mentioned.