- •Практическая грамматика английского языка (морфология)
- •Accidence
- •Special difficulties in the use of articles
- •§ 40. Omission of the Article Chapter III. The adjective
- •The Indefinite Form
- •The Continuous Form
- •Grammatical structure of the english language
- •§ 1. Languages may be synthetic and analytical according to their grammatical structure.
- •§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
- •§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
- •Accidence general classification of the parts of speech
- •Chapter I
- •§ 1. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
- •§ 2. The noun has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. The noun has certain syntactical characteristics.
- •§ 4. The Morphological composition of nouns.
- •§ 5. The Classification of nouns.
- •1) Class nouns,
- •3) Nouns of material
- •4) Abstract nouns.
- •§ 6. The category of number.
- •§ 7. The category of case.
- •§1. General notion.
- •§ 2. Functions of the Article.
- •§ 1. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
- •§ 2. The use of the definite article with class nouns.
- •§ 3. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes.
- •§ 4. Additional notes on the Use of the Definite article.
- •§ 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used.
- •§ 6. When a definite part of the substance is meant (when the noun is modified by a particularizing attribute or is made definite by the situation), the definite article is used.
- •§ 7. When an indefinite part of the substance is meant, some is used.
- •§ 8. When abstract nouns are used in a general sense, no article is used.
- •§ 9. When abstract nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes the idea definite modifies abstract nouns, they are used with the definite article.
- •§ 12. Names of persons.
- •§ 13. Geographical names.
- •§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
- •§ 15. Names of cardinal points.
- •§ 16. Names of months and days.
- •§ 17. The use of articles with nouns modified by proper nouns.
- •§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article.
- •§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns.
- •§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition.
- •§ 23. Class nouns used in address take no article.
- •§ 24. Place of the article.
- •§25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian.
- •§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening.
- •§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons.
- •§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
- •§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town.
- •§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals.
- •§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages.
- •§ 32. Most.
- •§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little.
- •§ 34. Two, the two, three, the three etc.
- •§ 35. The second, a second.
- •§ 36. Another, the other.
- •§ 37. Last, the last.
- •§ 38. Next, the next.
- •§ 39. A number, the number.
- •§ 40. Omission of the Article
- •Chapter III
- •§ 1. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance.
- •§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. Spelling rules.
- •§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
- •§ 5. The Morphological composition of the adjective.
- •§ 6. The Classification of adjectives.
- •§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
- •§8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
- •§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.
- •Chapter IV
- •§ 1. The pronoun is a part of speech, which points out objects and their qualities without naming or describing them.
- •§ 2. The Classification of pronouns.
- •§ 3. Personal pronouns.
- •§ 4. Possessive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 5. Reflexive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
- •§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
- •§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
- •§ 9. Relative pronouns.
- •§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
- •§ 11. Defining pronouns.
- •§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
- •§ 13. Negative pronouns.
- •§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech, which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
- •§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
- •§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
- •§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
- •§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake etc.
- •§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
- •§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
- •§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
- •§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
- •§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
- •§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech, which expresses various emotions without naming them.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
- •§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
- •Chapter X
- •§ 1. The preposition is a form-word, which has no independent lexical meaning and is used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
- •§2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
- •§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
- •§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech, which hasn’t independent lexical meaning of its own, but serves to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses.
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
- •§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes
- •§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
- •Chapter XII
- •§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
- •Chapter XIII the verb
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.
- •§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.
- •§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
- •§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb, which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
- •§10. Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
- •The Present Indefinite.
- •§ 1. The use of the Present Indefinite.
- •The Past Indefinite
- •§ 2. The use of the Past Indefinite.
- •The Future Indefinite
- •§ 3. The use of the Future Indefinite.
- •The Continuous Form
- •The Present Continuous
- •§ 4. The Present Continuous is used:
- •The Past Continuous
- •§ 5. The use of the Past Continuous.
- •The Future Continuous
- •§ 6. The use of the Future Continuous.
- •Verbs not used in the Continuous form
- •The Perfect Form
- •The Present Perfect
- •§ 7. The use of the Present Perfect.
- •§ 8. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.
- •The Past Perfect
- •§ 9. The use of the Past Perfect.
- •§ 10. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
- •§ 11. The use of the Future Perfect.
- •The Perfect Continuous Form
- •§ 12. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 13. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
- •§ 14. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •The Past Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 15.We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •§ 16. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.
- •§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.
- •The Passive Voice
- •§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.
- •§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
- •Indefinite
- •Continuous
- •Perfect
- •§ 20. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.
- •§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
- •§ 22. The Passive Voice and the Nominal Predicate.
- •Modal verbs
- •§ 4. Must.
- •§ 5. Should and ought.
- •§ 8. Shall.
- •§ 9. Will.
- •§ 10. Would.
- •§ 11. Dare.
- •§12. Need.
- •The Indicative Mood
- •The Imperative Mood
- •The Subjunctive Mood
- •§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
- •§ 4. In modern English the forms of the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect Indicative are used to express unreality.
- •1. Simple sentences
- •§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
- •2. Complex sentences.
- •§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
- •§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
- •§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
- •§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
- •Chapter XIV
- •§ 1. The verbals are three in number: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. The verbals combine the characteristics of the verb with those of some other parts of speech.
- •§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
- •The participle
- •§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.
- •§ 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions.
- •§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence.
- •§ 9. Predicative constructions with the Participle.
- •§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.
- •It published.
- •§12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
- •The gerund
- •§ 16. The double nature of the gerund.
- •§ 17. The tense distinctions of the gerund.
- •§18. The voice distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 21. The use of the gerund.
- •§ 22. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
- •§ 23. The gerund and the infinitive.
- •§ 24. The gerund and the participle.
- •§ 26. The tense and aspect distinctions of the Infinitive. Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the Infinitive are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 27. The voice distinctions of the Infinitive.
- •§ 28. The use of the Infinitive without the particle to (the bare
- •Infinitive).
- •§ 29. The functions of the Infinitive in the sentence.
- •§ 30. Infinitive constructions.
- •§ 31. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 32. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Subjective Infinitive Construction
- •§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
There are two types of absolute constructions in which we find no participle. The second element of the construction is an adjective, a prepositional phrase, or an adverb.
1. The Nominative Absolute Construction. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time or attendant circumstances. In the function of an adverbial modifier of time this construction is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause.
Breakfast over, he went to his counting house. (Ch. Bronte)
Когда кончили завтракать, он пошел в свою контору.
In the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances the Nominative Absolute Construction is rendered either by a coordinate clause, деепричастный оборот, or a noun (pronoun) with the preposition c.
The girl sat quite silent and still, her eyes fixed on the floor.
Девушка сидела молча и неподвижно, глаза ее были устремлены на пол.
They were walking on again, John calmly drawing at his pipe.
И снова они пошли, Джон спокойно курил свою трубку.
Mind the difference between the meaning of the following constructions: The lesson (concert, lecture) over... and The lesson (concert, lecture) being over... The lesson over has a temporal meaning, whereas the lesson being over has as a rule a causal meaning.
2. The Prepositional Absolute Construction. It is introduced by the preposition with and is mostly used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. In rendering this construction in Russian a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот is used.
He was slowly walking in the direction of the lake, with his dog following him.
Он медленно шел по направлению к озеру, за ним следовала его собака.
The child ran to her father with her arms outstretched.
Ребенок бежал к отцу, протягивая руки.
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and the Nominative Absolute Construction are as a rule separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a semicolon.
The gerund
§ 15. The gerund developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized preserving at the same time its nominal character. In fact, the Gerund behaves like a noun, though it can take an object like a verb. The gerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb, and coincides in form with Participle I.
§ 16. The double nature of the gerund.
The gerund has nominal and verbal properties. The nominal characteristics оf the gerund are as follows.
1. The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and predicative.
Crossing the river was a hard task. (subject)
She enjoyed sitting in the sun. (direct object)
Deciding is acting. (predicative)
2. The gerund can be preceded by a preposition.
The rain showed no sign of stopping.
I am relieved at being left alone.
3. Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun.
His getting divorced surprised everybody.
She insisted on his taking a cup of tea with the family.
The verbal characteristics of the gerund are the same as those of the participle:
1. The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object.
I had now made good progress in understanding and speaking their language. (Swift)
2. The gerund can be modified by an adverb.
He began snapping the pebbles carefully into the stream.
She burst out crying bitterly. (Hardy)
3. The gerund has tense distinctions; the gerund of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. The forms of the gerund in Modern English are as follows:
Indefinite: doing (Active Voice), being done (Passive Voice)
Perfect: having done (Active), having been done (Passive)
There is no gerund in Russian and the English gerund is rendered in Russian in different ways:
a) by a noun: .
Dancing had not begun yet... (Mansfield)
Танцы еще не начались.
b) by an infinitive:
She enjoyed sitting in the sun.
Ей очень нравилось сидеть на солнце.
с) by деепричастие.
Jolyon stood a moment without speaking. (Galsworthy)
Джолион стоял мгновение, не говоря ни слова.
d) by a subordinate clause.
He regretted now having come. (Galsworthy)
Теперь он сожалел, что пришел.
It should be noted that though the active forms of the gerund may be rendered in different ways, the passive forms are nearly always rendered by a clause.
I felt relieved at being left alone.
Я почувствовал облегчение от того, что меня оставили в покое.