§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.

1. A notional verb is a verb which has an independent meaning and function in the sentence. It is used as a simple verbal predicate and expresses an action or a state of the person or thing denoted by the subject. Here belong such verbs as to write, to read, to speak, to know, to ask.

Ricky surrounded her with great care and luxury. (Stern)

She knew what he was thinking. (Galsworthy)

I know what you mean (Rendell)

2. Auxiliary verbs are those which have lost their meaning and are used only as form words, thus having only a grammatical function. They are used in analytical forms. Here belong such verbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should, would, may.

Have you spoken to him?

I haven’t had the chance yet.

You will realize soon that he is always like this.

They are coming tomorrow.

3. Link verbs are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have lost their meaning and are used in the compound nominal predicate: to be, to turn, to get, to grow, to remain etc.

The house was too big. (Galsworthy)

The old face looked worn and hollow again. (Galsworthy)

It’s getting dark outside.

He didn’t seem tired. (Snow)

In different contexts the same verb can be used as a notional verb and an auxiliary verb or a link verb:

She turned her head sullenly away from me. (notional verb)

She turned deadly pale. (link verb)

No one was there to meet him. (notional verb)

She was not a ten-year-old girl any more... (link verb)

This evening she was unusually excited, her red cheeks and lips contrasting lustrously with her shadowy hair. (link verb)

There is a special group of verbs, which have no independent function in the sentence, though they preserve a meaning of their own. They are often referred to as semi-auxiliary verbs. These are modal verbs such as can, may, must, ought etc.

I can’t walk any further, my feet ache.

I suppose I ought to say a word or two about myself (Rendell)

The same verb in different contexts can be modal and auxiliary.

I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I

should not be seen. (Du Maurier) (auxiliary verb)

I don't honestly think Lady Crowan was exaggerating when she said something should be done in your honour. (Du Maurier) (modal verb)

I had no idea she would do that. (Du Maurier) (auxiliary verb)

He needed a cook. Why couldn't she apply for the job? But Morris would not hear of it. (Prichard) (modal verb)

§ 5. As has been stated above a verb can be transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs take a direct object, i.e. they express an action that passes on to a person or thing directly. A direct object answers the questions What? or Whom? Only action verbs can be transitive. Here belong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make, to see, to show, to bring, to love, etc.

She could order dinner with judgement and select proper wines for each course. (Hilton)

I saw Evelyn at the conference.

There are some transitive verbs, which are hardly ever used without a direct object, such as to take, to make, to give, to have.

Arthur signed the receipt, took his papers and went out

in dead silence. (Voynich)

There are other verbs which can be used either with or without a direct object, such as to read, to write, to hear, to see.

On Friday night about eleven he had packed his bag and was leaning out of his window... when he heard a tiny sound, as of a finger-nail, tapping on his door (Galsworthy)

The starch, as he soon heard, was valued at ten dollars a barrel and it only brought six. (Dreiser)

Any verb that does not take a direct object is intransitive. That is, the verb does not express an action that passes on to a receiver. Here belong such verbs as to stand, to sleep, to laugh, to think, to lie, to swim, etc.

He shrugged without answering (Hilton)

Helen’s smile widened (Hilton)

Helen Avery flushed angrily (Hilton)

There are verbs whose primary meaning is transitive and whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here" belong such verbs as to sell, to read, to add, to act, etc.

This book sells well.

Though Dora tried hard the figures would not add.

There are verbs whose primary meaning is intransitive and whose secondary meaning is transitive. Here belong such verbs as to work, to starve, to walk, to run, etc.

For that man, I've been running people through the front line! (Heym)

§ 6. A verb can also have some aspect characteristics depending solely on its lexical meaning. Accordingly verbs are divided into terminative, non-terminative and verbs of double lexical (aspect) character.

1. A terminative verb expresses an action, which has a final aim in view, a certain limit beyond which the action cannot be continued. For instance the final aim of the action expressed by the verb to close is to have something closed; after you have closed it you cannot continue closing — this is the limit beyond which the action of the verb to close does not go.

Here belong simple and composite verbs, such as to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take, to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, to become, to stand up, to sit down, to come to. They can correspond both to Russian verbs of imperfective and of perfective aspect: to come – приходить, прийти; to build – строить, построить; to die – умирать, умереть.

The doctor returned to the room.

The doctor put the aspirins half by half into her mouth and she washed them down with the warm wine. (Spark)

2. Non-terminative verbs denote a certain action, which does not imply any limit. Here belong such verbs as to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have, to possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to hope, to sit, etc.

They correspond to Russian verbs of imperfective aspect only: to live — жить, to exist – существовать, to sleep — спать.

She stood in the room noticing the sunlight on the floor. (Spark)

Annabel lay on her sleepless bed now. (Spark)

3. Verbs of double lexical character in certain contexts have a terminative meaning, and in others, a non-terminative meaning. Here belong such verbs as to see, to hear, to write, to read, to translate.

Arthur looked round the room, saw that everything was hidden, and unlocked the door. (Voynich)

Артур бросил взгляд на комнату, увидел, что все спрятано и отпер дверь.

I don't believe in fairies. I never see any. (Galsworthy)

Я не верю в фей. Я их никогда не вижу.