Indirect onomatopoeia

a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense (“echo – writing”) (I.R.G.)

e.g. “And the silken, sad, uncertain, rustling of each purple curtain“(E.Poe)

- is very effectively used by repeating word which themselves are not onomatopoeic

e.g. Silver bells … how they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle … // To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells // From the bells, bells, bells, bells, // Bells, bells, bells, – // From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. (E.Poe - The Bells)

rhyme

рифма

the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words

@ full rhyme

identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (might – right, needless – heedless)

See: <rhyme>

@

- incomplete rhymes:

[m3]@ vowel rhymes

the vowels of the syllable in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different (flesh -–fresh – press)

See: <rhyme>

[m3]@ consonant rhymes

show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels (worth – forth, tale – tool – Treble – trouble; flung – long)

See: <rhyme>

@

Source:<I.R.G.>

See: < rhythm>, <euphony>,

rhythm

1) a flow, movement, procedure, etc. characterised by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different elements or features (Webster’s New World Dictionary)

2) a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it, variations which are governed by the standard (I.R.G.)

See: <rhyme> , <euphony>,

whitewashing device

See: <euphemism>

set expressions

include: clichés, proverbs and sayings, <epigram>s, quotations, <allusion>s

epigram

эпиграмма

a) a <SD> akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the people

b) terse, witty, pointed statement, showing the ingenious turn of mind of the originator

e.g. A God that can be understood is no God. (S.Maugham)

e.g. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. (Keats)

e.g. He that bends shall be made straight. (S.Maugham)

e.g. Art is triumphant when it can use convention as an instrument of its own purpose. (S.Maugham – The Razor’s Edge)

Source:<I.R.G.>

See: <set expressions>, <lexical SDs>

allusion

аллюзия

an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing

e.g. No little Grandgrind had ever associated a cow in a field with that famous cow with the crumpled horn that tossed the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt, or with that yet more famous cow swallowed Tom Thumb; it had never heard of those celebrities (Dickens– Hard Times)

(The <meaning> that can be derived from the two allusions, one to the nursery <rhyme> “The House that Jack build” and the other to the old tale “The history of Tom Thumb”)

Source:<I.R.G.>

e.g. "Don't count your boobies until they are hatched"(J.Thurber)

See: <set expressions>, <lexical SDs>

parenthesis

парентеза

a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes. (Random House Dict. of the Engl. Lang.)

- a variant of <detached construction>

See: <detached construction>, <syntactical SDs>

enumeration

перечисление

a <SD> by which separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which, being syntactically in the same position (homogeneous parts of speech), are forced to display some kind of semantic homogeneity, remote through it may Seem. (I.R.G.:216)

- integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one whole, unlike <polysyndeton>

e.g. The principal production of these towns … appear to be soldiers, sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dock-yard men. (Dickens– Pickwick Papers)

See: <polysyndeton>, <parallel construction>, <syntactical SDs>

gap-sentence link

a way of connecting two sentences Seemingly unconnected and leaving it to the reader’s perspicacity to grasp the idea implied, but not worded

e.g. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in Italy. (Galsworthy)

(the second part, which is hooked on to the first by the conjunction and, Seems to be unmotivated or, in other words, the whole sentenceSeems to be logically incoherent. But this is only the first impression. After a more careful supralinear semantic analysis it becomes clear that the exact logical variant of the utterance would be: ‘Those who ought to suffer were enjoining themselves in Italy’)

- is generally indicated by and or but

- the omissions are justified because the situation easily prompts what has not been said;

- is based on the peculiarities of the spoken language and is therefore most frequently used in represented speech;

- has various functions: it may serve to signal the introduction of inner represented speech, it nay be used to indicate a subjective evaluation of the facts; it may introduce an effect resulting from a cause which has already had verbal expression;

- displays and unexpected coupling of ideas;

- aims at stirring up in the reader’s mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence uttered can really exist

e.g. She says nothing, but it is clear that she is harping on this engagement, and – goodness know what. (Galsworthy)

e.g. It was an afternoon to dream. And she took out Jon’s letters. (Galsworthy)

Source:<I.R.G.>

See: <types of connection>

question-in-the-narrative

is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author

e.g. ’For what is left the poet here? // For Greeks a blush – for Greece a tear. (Byron – Don Juan)

- does not contain statement unlike a <rhetorical question>;

- assume a semi-exclamatory nature;

- is very often used in oratory;

- sometimes gives the impression of an intimate talk between the writer and the reader;

e.g. Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course he did. How could it be otherwise? Scrooge and he were partners for I don’t know how many years. (Dickens)

- may also remain unanswered (there are only hints of the possible answers)

e.g. How long must it go on? Now long must we suffer? Where is the end? What is the end? (Norris)

- \[presumes that the questioner does not know the answer\]

Source:<I.R.G.>

See: <rhetorical question>, <syntactical SDs>

{{======================================================}}

there is/are the

••

В большинстве случаев существительное в конструкции с вводящим there употребляется с неопределённым артиклем или без артикля. Употребление определённого артикля, однако, не исключается.

e.g. [u]There was[/u] harmony between father and son again and [u]the old understanding[/u].(P.Abrahams)

Часто употребление определённого артикля в таких случаях обусловлено стилистически, что находит отражение в переводе.

e.g. There was the long drive home; the long drive and the warm dark and the pleasant closeness of the hansom cab. (Galsworthy) – Всё тот же длинный путь, всё та же дорога и знакомая приятная теснота кеба.

Source:Бархударов Л.С., Штелинг Д.А. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1965. С. 297

See: <stylistic use of articles>, <morphological level>

stylistic analysis of poetry

стилистический анализ поэзии

- звуковая сторона поэтической речи (ритмика, рифма, эвфония и звукопись);

[m3]See: <rhythm>, <rhyme> , <euphony>, <phono-graphical level>

- использование лексики (синонимия, антонимия);

[m3]See: <synonymy>, <antonymy>, <lexical level>

- тропы (метафора, метонимия)

[m3]See: <trope>, <tropes>, <lexical SDs>

- использование экспрессивных возможностей морфологии (грамматические архаизмы, глагольные формы, артикль);

[m3]See: <stylistic use of articles>, <negation>, <morphological level>

- использование экспрессивных возможностей синтаксиса;

[m3]See: <syntactical level>

Source:<N.F.P.>

See: <expressive means>, <stylistic device>

stylistic analysis of prose

стилистический анализ прозы

- использование функциональных стилей, архаизация;

[m3]See: <functional style>, <archaisms>

- фонетический аспект речи;

[m3]See: <euphony>, <phono-graphical level>

- использование системной организации лексики (синонимия, антонимия);

[m3]See: <synonymy> , <antonymy>, <lexical level>

- тропеические средства (метафора, метафорическое сравнение, сюжетная метафора, метонимия)

[m3]See: <trope>, <tropes>, <lexical SDs>

- стилистические возможности морфологии (грамматическое и художественное время, употребление артиклей, употребление отрицания);

[m3]See: <tense of verbs>, <stylistic use of articles>, <negation>, <morphological level>

- выразительные возможности синтаксиса;

[m3]See: <syntactical level>

- построение содержания текста:

[m3]-образ рассказчика;

[m3]- динамика и статика текста;

[m3]-трансформация реальности (фантастические объяснения, впоследствии получающие более или менее реалистическое объяснение);

[m3]- позиция наблюдателя;

See: <expressive means>, <stylistic device>

Source:<N.F.P.>

conversion

e.g. I have a must. A win in this match is a must.

e.g. Green waters flowers every day.

e.g. Running exercises leg muscles.

e.g. She madams everybody.

e.g. Turn your oughts into shalls.

e.g. How-do-you-do's were exchanged. (Sweet)

e.g. Warmed by the hot tea, he warmed to the argument.

e.g. Sharp ups and downs marked 1999 for the European Union.

e.g. She came dressed up to the nines.

e.g. Finally, to quiet him, she said uneekly, she hadn't really meant it.

e.g. The differences are now being narrowed.

e.g. Her face, heated with his own exertions, chilled suddenly.

e.g. When he saw who it was, he condescended a sarcastic Thank you, but no Madam. He did not madam anybody, even good customers like Mrs Moore. (Dickens)

e.g. ... the bounding vitality which had carried her through what had been a life of quite sharp ups and downs. (McCrone)

e.g. Don't bustle me," said Eeyore, getting up slowly. "Don't now-then me." (Milne)

gender markers

linguistic features of “female” and “male” languages

- men and women Seem to differ in terms of their communicative competence or, in other words, in their knowledge of how to use language in society;

- women and men typically employ different linguistic “styles” of speech;

- men and women use certain linguistic patterns which are typical of “powerful” and “powerless” (the “men’s” and “women’s” styles of) language;

- Male and female speakers tend to use different kinds of expressions when the make a request. This reflects the different ideas between male and female speakers about gender and intimacy.

- <gender markers of male language>

- <gender markers of female language>

gender markers of male language

- tend to change their expressions depending on the degree of their intimacy with the listeners

- use polite forms of making a request when the listeners are not intimate.

- if those who do them a favour are close friends, they will ask them in a more casual way, even bluntly without showing any politeness.

- generally use more polite expressions when they speak to female friends than to males

- choose from different expressions, depending on whom they are talking to

Ant.: <gender markers of female language>

See: <gender markers>

gender markers of female language

- are found not to change their expressions as much depending on the sex of the persons they speak to

- generally use more polite expressions both to the male and female listeners alike.

- tend not to change their way of speaking, depending on whom they are talking to.

••

1. The use of ‘hedges’ of ‘<parenthesis>’.

e.g. sort of, I guess, kind of, you know, well, youSee, just

e.g. [u]Well[/u], we were, [u]uh[/u], very close friends. [u]Uh[/u], she was even [u]sort of like[/u] a mother to me. (Lady Diana Spencer)

2. Excessive use of super-polite forms of expression.

e.g. would you please; I’d really appreciate it if you would do smth; would you be so kind and do something, I awfully ask you to do smth …

3. The use of ‘tag questions’.

e.g. The crisis in Kosovo is terrible, isn’t it? But you can switch on the light, can you?

4. Speaking ‘in italics’, i.e. the use of emphatic so and very which is equivalent to [u]underlining[/u] words in written language, often followed by the sudden rise in intonation pitch:

e.g. This is a very important subject. This problem is of so much importance. It is a very very serious.

e.g. It took a long time to understand why people were so interested in me.(Lady Diana Spencer)

5. The use of the ‘empty’ adjectives or adverbs.

e.g. divine, daunting, charming, sweet, adorable, tremendous, significant, phenomenal, desperate, desperately

6. Hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation.

7. Lack of sense of humour which means that women are usually poor at telling jokes comparing to men.

8. Direct quotations.

e.g. I asked him: ‘Why did you come home so late?’ and he said: ‘I was in the pub having some beer with my friends’

e.g. ’It was a long way off’, I thought. ... I said to my husband: ‘What do I do now?’ and he said: ‘Go to the other side and speak to them’.(Lady Diana Spencer)

9. Special vocabulary, e.g. the use of diminutive forms of specialise colour terms.

e.g. piglet, kitty, chubby, sweetheart, honey

e.g. The Queen wore a yellow dress and a green hat. He was in a dark blue suit.

10. Question intonation in declarative contexts, which may cause a problem for interpreters desperately trying to figure out whether may cause what was said should be regarded as a statement or as a question.

Source:(Coats 1986, O’Barr 1982, Lakoff 1975) cit. byМаксимов С.Є., Радченко Т.О. Перекладацький аналіз тексту. – К.: КНЛУ, 2001. – 105 с.

Ant.: <gender markers of male language>

See: <gender markers>

mixed metaphor

two or more metaphors that sound strange or funny when you use them together

e.g. This is a great headache lifted off my shoulders. –С моих плеч свалилась ужасная головная боль.

Source:<MacMillan>, 895

e.g. Для того чтобы поставить детей на ноги, надо снять их со своей шеи.

e.g. Ни что так не ограничивает свободу слова, как набитый рот.

See: <metaphor>, <convergence>

double predicate

двойное сказуемое, глагольно-именное сказуемое

a special type of predicate which presents a crossing of two predicates – a verbal predicate and a nominal predicate

e.g. The moon rose red. (= The moon was red when it rose)

e.g. She went away quite a child; she returned a grown-up woman.

e.g. In that part of Africa the natives go naked all the year round.

e.g. At this idea he went mad.

Source:Ганшина М.А. Василевская Н.М. Практ. грамм. англ. яз. М., 1964. C. 350

••

combines the features of two different types of predicate: the simple verbal predicate, expressed by a notional verb denoting an action or process performed by the person/non-person expressed by the subject, and the compound nominal predicate, expressed by a noun or an adjective which denotes the properties of the subject in the same way as the predicative of the compound nominal predicate proper does.

e.g. The moon was shining cold and bright.

e.g. My daughter sat silent.

e.g. He died a hero.

e.g. She married young.

e.g. The light came grey and pale.

e.g. The men stood silent and motionless.

e.g. They met friends and parted enemies.

e.g. The moon rose round and yellow.

There are a number of verbs that often occur in this type of predicate, performing the double function of denoting a process and serving as link verbs at the same time. They are: to die, to leave, to lie, to marry, to return, to rise, to sit, to stand, to shine, etc.. As in Modern English is a growing tendency to use this type of predicate, the verbs occuring in it are not limited by any particular lexical class.

Source:Кобрина Н.А.и др. Грамм. англ. яз.СПб.,2001. C. 342

••

В роли первого компонента выступает предикативная форма глаголов, имеющих значение: движения (to go, to come, to run, to fly, to ride, to rise, to fall, to return, etc.), положения в пространстве (to stand, to lie, to sit, to hang, etc.), состояния (to live, to die, etc.), проявления физических свойств, воздействия на органы чувств (to feel, to look, to ring, to smell, to taste, etc.), кажимости, видимости (to Seem, to appear), неожиданности, случайности (to prove, to turn out)

Source:Бархударов Л.С., Штелинг Д.А. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1965. С. 305

••

e.g. This will taste bad. (J. Steinbeck)

e.g. The sky shone pale... (Mansfield)

e.g. The sun rose brightly. (London)

e.g. The sun was shining bright and cold. (London)

e.g. The snow fell soft on his face and hair. (A. Maltz)

e.g. The moon shone peacefully. (Brontë).

e.g. She flushed crimson... (Galsworthy)

e.g. He looked stained and worried.(Galsworthy)

e.g. Dusk had gathered thick. (Galsworthy)

e.g. ...Soames stood invisible at the top of the stairs... (Galsworthy)

e.g. ... the poplar tops showed sharp and dense against the sky. (Galsworthy)

e.g. The sun shone out bright and warm... (Dickens)

e.g. Around and around the house the leaves fall thick. (Dickens)

e.g. He resigned his office and died an old man. (Daily Worker)

e.g. They \[carnations\] arrived perfectly fresh. (Mazo de la Roche)

e.g. Catherine's blood ran cold with the horrid suggestions which naturally sprang from these words. (J. Austen)

e.g. You've come home such a beautiful lady. (Taylor)

e.g. I sat down hungry, I was hungry while I ate, and I got up from the table hungry. (Saroyan)

e.g. She had set her feet upon that road a spoiled, selfish and untried girl, full of youth, warm of emotion, easily bewildered by life. (Dreiser)

See: <double passive>, <secondary predication constructions>

double passive

двойной пассив

the construction whereby a passive infinitive directly follows a passive verb

Double passives are more acceptable when used in a reporting context. It is better to avoid the passive form of the verb as much as possible as it tends to convey a weak approach by the individual writing it.

e.g. The building is scheduled to be demolished next week.

e.g. The contract is proposed to be withdrawn.

e.g. Their budget was expected to be reduced.

e.g. The mountain was attempted to be climbed.

e.g. A cheerful atmosphere was endeavoured to be created.

e.g. The piece was originally intended to be played on the harpsichord.

e.g. This topic was claimed to have been studied to death.

e.g. Three people are reported to have been drowned.

e.g. The building was expected to have been completed by then.

e.g. The manufacture of your goods is hoped to be resumed shortly.

Sources:

[url]http://www.oltuk.com/courses/communication/w-communication15.htm[/url]

The American Heritage Book of English Usage. A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporary English. 1996.

[m4][url]http://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/024.html[/url]

The Columbia Guide to Standard American English by Kenneth G. Wilson.

[m4][url]http://www.bartleby.com/68/5/2005.html[/url]

The Oxford Guide to English Usage.

[m4][url]http://koapp.narod.ru/english/diction/book6.htm[/url]

[m4][url]http://www.englspace.com/dl/files/oxfrd_gu.zip[/url]

See: <complex subject>, <secondary predication constructions>, <double predicate>

double possessive

double genitive

двойной генитив

the ’s construction after the of-construction

e.g. a friend of my father’s (= one of my father’s friends)

e.g. a play of Shakespeare’s (= one of Shakespeare’s plays)

This can happen because we usually put only one determiner in front of a noun.

e.g. this son of mine, a friend of yours, a cousin of hers,

e.g. Isn’t Frank Byers a friend of yours?

e.g. He’s no friend of mine. (= I don’t know him.) or (= He’s my enemy.)

The use of demonstratives often suggests criticism:

e.g. That silly uncle of yours has told me the same joke five times.

Source:Longman English Grammar by L.G.Alexander. L., 1988. P. 54

See: <morphological level>

double negative

двойное отрицание

two negative words in a sentence

- can be used to express an affirmative, but this is rare or sometimes heard in joking;

e.g. Nobody did nothing. (=Everybody did something)

- is acceptable when there is co-ordination;

e.g. I’ve never had and never wanted a television set.

- is also possible in different clauses:

e.g. I can never get in touch with Thomas, as he has no telephone.

[m3]Note: the not in the if-clause does not make a true negative:

e.g. I wouldn’t be surprised if he didn’t try to blackmail you. (i.e. if he tried to blackmail you.)

Source:Longman English Grammar by L.G.Alexander. L., 1988. P. 254, 277

••

- is possible in standard English, but then both words normally have their full <meaning>

e.g. Compare:

e.g. Say nothing. (=Be silent.)

e.g. Don’t just say nothing. Tell us what the problem is. (=Don’t be silent...)

- is sometimes used instead of simple positive structures for special stylistic effects

- is rather literary

- can Seem unnatural or old-fashioned in spoken English

e.g. Not a day passes when I don’t regret not having studied music in my youth. (More natural: Every day I regret not having studied music when I was younger. OR: I wish I had studied music when I was younger.)

Source:Practical English Usage by Michael Swan. L., 1996. P. 357

e.g. Nobody never went and hinted no such thing, said Peggotty; I can’t do nothing without my staff. (Hardy)

See: <negation>, <morphological level>

continuous infinitive

in

e.g. I can recollect yet how I loved him; and can dimly imagine I could still [u]be loving[/u] him if - No, no! (E.Bronte)

gives more prominence to the idea of the continuity of her love, and this is obviously much stronger than the mere statement that love might still be there now. The stylistic difference is thus unquestionable, but there would Seem to be also a grammatical difference. The <meaning> of the continuous aspect is well brought out here, though the lexical meaning of the verb love wouldSeem to go against it.

Source:Ильиш Б.О. Строй современного английского языка. 2-е изд. Л.,1971. –С. 130

See: <morphological level>

continuous participle

is occasionally found, but this use appears to be obsolete:

e.g. The younger Miss Thorpes [u]being[/u] also [u]dancing[/u], Catherine was left to the mercy of Mrs Thorpe and Mrs Allen, between whom she now remained. (J.Austin)

e.g. Catherine had no leisure for speech, [u]being[/u] at once [u]blushing[/u], [u]tying[/u] her gown, and [u]forming[/u] wise resolutions with the most violent dispatch. (J.Austin)

The use of the continuous participles Seems to be a means of giving prominence to the fact that the actions indicated were actually happening at that very moment.

Source:Ильиш Б.О. Строй современного английского языка. 2-е изд. Л.,1971. –С. 131

See: <morphological level>

continuous infinitive passive

can only be used occasionally, with a strong stylistic colouring

Source:Blokh M.Y. A Course of Theoretical English Grammar. 4th ed. M., 2003. p. 118

e.g. Despite initial concerns, the MyParty virusSeems to be being contained with only a few thousand reports so far. (BBC)

e.g. Little has been heard of Saddam Hussein since he was captured at the end of last year but he is believed to be being held at an undisclosed location in Iraq. (BBC)

See: <morphological level>

perfect continuous infinitive passive

can only be used occasionally, with a strong stylistic colouring

Source:Blokh M.Y. A Course of Theoretical English Grammar. 4th ed. M., 2003. p. 118

e.g. Around a quarter (23.0%) \[of separate houses in Queensland\] were being rented. Flats and townhouses were far more likelyto have been being rented (71.5% and 63.0% respectively) than houses. (QueenslandGovt)

[url]http://www.oesr.qld.gov.au/data/briefs/c01/tenure_type_c01.pdf[/url]

e.g. Now we know from the documents that we have in Exhibit 37-A, that \[ventilation\] surveysSeem to have been being doneabout once a month upuntil … February.

[url]http://libmain.stfx.ca/newlib/collections/westray/transcripts/jul11.pdf[/url]

See: <morphological level>

perfect continuous passive

To imagine this ungainly verbal predicate in a sentence, consider:

e.g. That song has been being sung for hours, and I’m sick of it.

which implies either the singing of one extremely long song or repetitious performances of the same song.

Source:Gerald. P. Delahunty, James J. Garvey. Language, grammar and Communication. A Course for Teachers of English. Colorado, 1994. p. 194

See: <morphological level>

Ирина Владимировна Арнольд(?)