Inversion

(стилистическая) инверсия

a syntactical <stylistic device> in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate precedes the subject (complete inversion), or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair (partial inversion) (V.A.K.)

e.g. Of all my old association, of all my old pursuits and hopes, of all the living and the dead world, this one poor soul alone comes natural to me. (Dickens)

e.g. Women are not made for attack. Wait they must. (J.Conrad)

••

aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface <meaning> of the utterance (I.R.G.:204)

e.g. Talent Mr. Micawber has; capital Mr. Micawber has not. (Dickens)

e.g. Down dropped the breeze … (Coleridge)

••

нарушение обычного порядка следования членов предложения, в результате которого какой-нибудь элемент отказывается выделенным и получает специальные коннотации эмоциональности и экспрессивности(I.V.A.)

••

- full inversion

e.g. Love he did her surely. (Th. Dreiser)

e.g. On the terrace stood a knot of distinguished visitors.(Huxley)

e.g. In one corner sat the band … (Huxley)

e.g. On the corner, waiting for a bus, had stood a young woman.(Buechner)

e.g. And only then will you truly joined the common European home … (David Atkinson)

e.g. Strange is the heart of woman. (S. Leacock)

- partial inversion

e.g. To a medical student the final examinations are something like death ... (R.Gordon) –Для студента-медика выпускные экзамены – смерти подобны ...

e.g. Money he had none.. (E. Gaskell) –Денег у него не было ни гроша.

e.g. Misty mountains they saw. (L. Sinclair)

e.g. This he knew very well. A pretty paradise did we build for ourselves.(Thackeray)

e.g. Terrible it had been! (K. Mansfield)

See: <chiasmus>, <ellipsis>, <syntactical SDs>

suspense

a deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence with the help of embedded clauses (homogeneous members) separating the predicate from the subject and introducing less important facts and details first, while the expected information of major importance is reserved till the end of the sentence (utterance) (V.A.K.)

••

a compositional device which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important, descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence (I.R.G.:218)

e.g. Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw. (Ch.Lamb)

e.g. Only when, after a few minutes, he \[the monkey\] ceased spinning and simply crouched in the pale light, bouncing softly up and down, his fingers digging into the carpet, his tail curled out stiff, did he start to speak to them. (Buechner).

See: <periodic sentences>, <syntactical SDs>

detachment

detached construction

a <stylistic device> based on singling out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation (intonation) (V.A.K.)

e.g. I have to beg you nearly killed, ingloriously, in a jeep accident. (I.Shaw)

e.g. I have to beg you for money. Daily. (S.Lewis)

e.g. She was crazy about you. In the beginning. (R.P.Warren)

••

placing one of the secondary parts of a sentence by some specific consideration of the writer so that itSeems formally independent of the word it logically refers to.

The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation.

Source:<I.R.G.>: 205

e.g. Daylight was dying, the moon rising, gold behind the poplars. (Galsworthy)

e.g. ‘I want to go’ he said, miserable. (Galsworthy)

See: <attachment>, <parenthesis>, <syntactical SDs>

Syn.: detachment, detached construction

completeness of sentence structure

includes: <ellipsis>, <apokoinu constructions>, <break-in-the-narrative> or <aposiopesis>

See: <types of connection>, <syntactical SDs>

ellipsis

эллипсис

a deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence

e.g. What! all my pretty chickens and their dam at one fell swoop? (W.Shakespeare)

e.g. In manner, close and dry. In voice, husky and low. In face, watchful behind a blind. (Dickens)

e.g. His forehead was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all one side. (Dickens)

••

omission of certain members of the sentence

- is typical phenomenon in conversation

- always imitates the common features of colloquial language

e.g. So Justice Oberwaltzer – solemnly and didactically from his high seat to the jury. (Dreiser)

Source:<I.R.G.>

See: <inversion>, <completeness of sentence structure>

apokoinu constructions

apo-koinu constructions

Greek "with a common element"

the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) connective

- create a blend of the main and the subordinate clauses so that;

- the predicative or the object of the first one is simultaneously used as the subject of the second one;

Source:<V.A.K.>

••

the peculiar introducer or demonstrative construction whose attributive semi-clause has a finite verb predicate

- specific semi-complex sentence;

- formed much on the pattern of common subject overlapping;

- should be classed as a familiar colloquialism of occasional use; Source:(Blokh)

e.g. There was a door led into the kitchen. (Sh. Anderson)

e.g. He was the man killed that deer. (R. Warren)

e.g. There was no breeze came through the door. (E.Hemingway)

e.g. I bring him news will raise his dropping spirits. (O. Jespersen)

e.g. … or like the snow falls in the river. (O. Jespersen)

e.g. … when at her door arose a clatter might awake the dead. (O. Jespersen)

e.g. It was you insisted on coming, because you didn't like restaurants.(S. O'Casey)

e.g. He's the one makes the noise at night. (E. Hemingway)

e.g. And there's nothing more can be done. (A. Christie)

See: <ellipsis>, <completeness of sentence structure>

break-in-the-narrative

aposiopesis

апОзиопезис

“a stopping short for rhetorical effect” (I.R.G.)

- used mainly in the dialogue or in the other forms of narrative imitating spontaneous oral speech because the speaker’s emotions prevent him from finishing the sentence (V.A.K.)

e.g. You just come home or I’ll ...

e.g. Good intentions, but ...

e.g. If you continue your intemperate way of living, in six months’ time ...

e.g. What I hadSeen of Patti didn’t really contradict Kitty’s view of her: a girl who means well, but. (D.Uhnak)

See: <completeness of sentence structure>

Syn.: break-in-the-narrative, aposiopesis

types of connection

include: <polysyndeton>, <asyndeton>, <attachment>, <gap-sentence link>

See: <enumeration>, <completeness of sentence structure>

polysyndeton

многосоюзие, полисиндетон

repeated use of conjunctions

- is to strengthen the idea of equal logical/emotive importance of connected sentences

e.g. By the time he had got all the bottles and dishes and knives and forks and glasses and plates and spoons and things piled up on big trays, he was getting very hot, and red in the face, and annoyed. (A.Tolkien)

e.g. Bella soaped his face and rubbed his face, and soaped his hands and rubbed his hands, and splashed him, and rinsed him, and towelled him, until he was as red as beetroot. (Dickens)

Source:<V.A.K.>

••

the <SD> of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component part

- makes an utterance more <rhythm>ical; so much so that prose may evenSeem like verse

- has a disintegrating function (generally combines homogeneous elements of thought into one whole resembling enumeration);

- causes each member of a string of facts to stand out conspicuously unlike <enumeration>, which integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one whole

e.g. The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect. (Dickens)

Source:<I.R.G.>

Ant.: <asyndeton>

See: <attachment>, <enumeration>, <repetition>, <types of connection>

asyndeton

асИндетон

deliberate omission of conjunctions, cutting off connecting words

- helps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active prose. (V.A.K.)

e.g. With these hurried words Mr. Bob Sawyer pushed the postboy on one side, jerked his friend into the vehicle, slammed the door, put up the steps, wafered the bill on the street-door, locked it, put the key into his pocket, jumped into the dickey, gave the word for starting. (Dickens)

e.g. It\[a provincial city\] is full of dirty blank spaces, high black walls, a gas holder, a tall chimney, a main road that shakes with dust and lorries. (J.Osborne - Entertainer)

••

connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign, becomes a <SD>, if there is deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language (I.R.G.)

e.g. Soames turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk, like one standing before an open grave, watching a coffin slowly lowered. (Galsworthy)

Ant.: <polysyndeton>

See: <attachment>, <types of connection>

attachment

separating the second part of the utterance from the first one by full stop though their semantic and grammatical ties remain very strong (V.A.K.)

e.g. It wasn’t his fault. It was yours. And mine. I now humbly beg you to give me the money with which to buy meals for you to eat. And hereafter do remember it: the next time I shan’t beg. I shall simply starve. (S.Lewis)

e.g. Prison is where she belongs. And my husband agrees one thousand per cent. (T.Capote)

e.g. He is a very deliberate, careful guy and we trust each other completely. With a few reservations. (D.Uhnak)

See: <detachment>, <types of connection>, <punctuation>, <syntactical SDs>

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lexico-syntactical stylistic devices

lexico-syntactical SDs

certain structures, whose emphasis depends not only on the arrangement of sentence members but also on the lexico-semantic aspect of the utterance (V.A.K.)

- include: <antithesis>, <climax>, <anticlimax>, <simile>, <litotes>, <periphrasis>

See: <lexical SDs>, <cluster SDs>, <syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

antithesis

антитеза

a semantically complicated <parallel construction>, the two parts of which are semantically opposite to each other

- is to stress the heterogenity of the described phenomenon, to show that the latter is a dialectical unity of two (or more) opposing features. (V.A.K.)

e.g. Some people have much to live on, and little to live for. (Wilde)

e.g. If we don’t know who gains by his death we do know who loses by it. (A.Christie)

e.g. Mrs. Nork had a large home and a small husband. (S.Lewis)

e.g. In marriage the upkeep of woman is often the downfall of man. (S.Evans)

e.g. Don’t use big words. They mean so little. (Wilde)

••

- stylistic opposition, based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs

e.g. saint – devil, reign – serve, hell – heaven, youth – age, fiery – frosty

The words involved in the opposition do not display any additional nuance of <meaning> caused by being opposed one to another.

- is generally moulded in <parallel construction>;

- is often signalled by the introductory connective but, when so, the other structural signal, the parallel arrangement, may not be evident, it may be unnecessary;

- a device, bordering between stylistics and logic;

It is essential to distinguish between antithesis and what is termed contrast. Contrast is a literary (not a linguistic) device based on logical opposition between the phenomena set one against another.

- has the following basic functions: rhythm-forming (because of the parallel arrangement on which it is founded); copulative; dissevering; comparative

Source:<I.R.G.>:222-224

••

стилистическая фигура, усиливающая выразительность за счёт столкновения (противопоставления) в одном контексте прямо противоположных понятий и образов(I.V.A.)

See: <oxymoron>, <parallel construction>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

climax

gradation

нарастание

a semantically complicated <parallel construction>, in which each next word combination (clause, sentence) is logically more important or emotionally stronger and more explicit (V.A.K.)

Three types:

@ logical climax

a three-step <climax> (the most widely spread model), in which intensification of logical importance, of emotion or quantity (size, dimensions) is gradually rising step by step (V.A.K.)

••

is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them (I.R.G.)

e.g. Better to borrow, better to beg, better to die! (Dickens)

e.g. Like a well, like a vault, like a tomb, the prison had no knowledge of the brightness outside. (Dickens)

e.g. For that one instant there was no one else in the room, in the house, in the world, besides themselves. (M.Wilson)

@ emotive climax

a two-step <climax>, in which the second part repeats the first one and is further strengthened by an intensifier (V.A.K.)

••

is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with <emotive meaning> (I.R.G.)

e.g. He was so helpless, so very helpless. (W.Deeping)

e.g. She felt better, immensely better. (W.Deeping)

e.g. I have been so unhappy here, so very very unhappy. (Dickens)

@ quantitative climax

an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts (I.R.G.)

e.g. They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected innumerable kitchens. (S.Maugham)

e.g. Little by little, bit by bit, and day by day, and year by year the baron got the worst of some disputed question. (Dickens)

@

e.g. We were all in all to one another, it was the morning of life, it was bliss, it was frenzy, it was everything else of that sort in the highest degree. (Dickens)

e.g. I am firm, thou art obstinate, he is pig-headed. (B.Charlestone)

e.g. No tree, no shrub, no blade of grass that was not owned. (J. Galsworthy)

••

an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance importance, or emotional tension in the utterance (I.R.G.:219)

••

расположение слов и выражений в порядке возрастающего их значения(I.V.A.)

Syn.: climax, gradation

Ant.: <anticlimax>

See: <parallel construction>, <repetition>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

anticlimax

антиклимакс, спад

a <climax> suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats expectations of the reader (listener) and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasised idea (V.A.K.)

e.g. It was appalling – and soon forgotten. (Galsworthy)

e.g. He was unconsolable – for an afternoon. (Galsworthy)

e.g. Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything except the obvious. (Wilde)

Ant.: <climax>

See: <lexico-syntactical SDs>

simile

сравнение

an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some quality

The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words: “like”, “as”, “as though”, “as if”, “as like”, “such as”, “as ... as”, etc.

e.g. She is like a rose.

e.g. He stood immovable like a rock in a torrent. (J.Reed)

e.g. His muscles are hard as rock. (T.Capote)

e.g. The conversation she began behaved like green logs: they fumed but would not fire. (T.Capote)

Source:<V.A.K.>

••

characterisation of one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things

- excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them;

- forcibly set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely alien to each other;

e.g. Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare. (Byron)

e.g. Other words live but a short time and are like bubbles on the surface of water – they disappear leaving no trace of their existence. (I.R.G.)

e.g. His mind was restless, but it worked perversely and thoughts jerked through his brain like the misfirings of a defective carburettor. (S.Maugham)

e.g. It was that moment of the year when the countrysideSeems to faint from its own loveliness, from the intoxication of tis scents and sounds. (Galsworthy)

Source:<I.R.G.>

Compare: <logical comparison>

See: <metaphor>, <epic simile> or <Homeric simile>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

(logical) comparison

(логическое) сопоставление

a) an ordinary comparison of two objects belonging to the same classes (V.A.K.)

e.g. She is like her mother.

b) weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the degree of their sameness or difference

- takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects, stressing the one that is compared

e.g. The boySeems to be as clever as his mother.

Source:<I.R.G.>

Compare: <simile>

See: <lexico-syntactical SDs>

(the) tenor

(the) vehicle

See: <simile>

epic simile

Homeric simile

extended <simile>, sustained expression of likeness

See: <simile>

Syn.: epic simile, Homeric simile

litotes

литота

a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a possessive evaluation

- the first component is always the negative particle “not”, while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word (as above) to a negative phrase

e.g. Her face was not unpretty. (K.Kesey)

e.g. It was not unnatural if Gilbert felt a certain embarrassment. (E.Waugh)

e.g. The idea was not totally erroneous. The thought did not displease me. (I.Murdoch)

Source:<V.A.K.>

••

a) is a <stylistic device> consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions: the negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing

- is a deliberate <understatement> used to produce stylistic effect: it is a negation that includes affirmation;

- is a means by which the natural logical and linguistic property of negation can be strengthened;

e.g. He found that this was no easy task.

- is used in different styles of speech, excluding those which may be called the matter-of-fact styles, like official style and scientific prose

b) a construction with two negations

e.g. not unlike, not unpromising, not displeased

e.g. Soames, with his lips and his squared chin was not unlike a bull dog. (Galsworthy)

Source:<I.R.G.>

••

фигура речи, состоящая в употреблении частицы с антонимом, уже содержащий отрицательный префикс

e.g. it is not unlikely = it is very likely; he was not unaware of = he was quite aware of

- в разговорном стиле передаёт преимущественно воспитанную сдержанность или иронию;

- в научном стиле сообщает высказыванию большую строгость и осторожность:

e.g. it is not difficult toSee= it easy toSee

- интересна свей национальной специфичностью; Её принято объяснять английским национальным характером, отражённым в речевом этикете англичан: английской сдержанностью в проявлении оценок и эмоций, стремлением избежать крайностей и сохранить самообладание в любых ситуациях:

e.g. It is rather an unusual story, isn’t it? = You lie. It would not suit be all that well. = It is impossible.

Source:<I.V.A.>, 236

See: <understatement>, <transference>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

periphrasis

circumlocution

перифраз

a) using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one

b) using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word

They are classified into <figurative periphrasis> (<metaphoric periphrasis> or <metonymic periphrasis>) and <logical periphrasis> (<euphemistic periphrasis>)

Source:<V.A.K.>

••

a device which, according to Webster’s dictionary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression

- aims at pointing to one of the Seemingly insignificant or barely noticeable features or properties of the given object, and intensifies this property by naming the object by the property;

- makes the reader perceive the new appellation against the background of the one existing in the language code and the twofold simultaneous perception secures the stylistic effect;

- like <simile>, has a certain cognitive function inasmuch as in deepens our knowledge of the phenomenon described;

e.g. I understand you are poor, and wish to earn money by nursing the little boy, my son, who has so prematurely deprived of what can never be replaced.\[= mother\] (Dickens)

e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightly failure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas.\[= lit the street lamps\] (Dickens)

If a periphrastic locution is understandable outside the context, it is not a stylistic device but merely a synonymous expression.

e.g. the cap and gown (student body); a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex (women); my better half (my wife)

Source:<I.R.G.>

••

<троп>, состоящий в замене названия предмета описательным оборотом с указанием его существенных, характерных признаков (I.V.A.)

e.g. The beast that bears me. (horse) (W.Shakespeare - L)

See: <euphemism>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

Syn.: periphrasis, circumlocution

figurative periphrasis

metaphoric periphrasis

metonymic periphrasis

перифраз фигуральный (метафорический, метонимический)

a <periphrasis> that is made of phrase-metonymies or phrase-metaphors (V.A.K.)

- is to convey a purely individual perception of the described object

e.g. The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in Africa.\[=wounded\] (I.Shaw)

e.g. His huge leather chairs were kind to the femurs. (R.P.Warren)

e.g. I took my obedient feet away from him. (W.S.Gilbert)

See: <metaphor>, <metonymy>, <periphrasis>

Syn.: figurative periphrasis, metaphoric periphrasis, metonymic periphrasis

logical periphrasis

euphemistic periphrasis

euphemism

перифраз логический (эвфемистический)

a phrase synonymic with the words which were substituted by <periphrasis> because the direct nomination of the not too elegant feature of appearance was substituted by a roundabout description

- offers more polite (euphemistic) qualification instead of a coarser one

e.g. Mr. Du Pont was dressed in the conventional disguise \[the suit \] with which Brooks Brothers cover the shame of American millionaires \[the paunch (belly)\]. (The Morning Star)

e.g. I am thinking an unmentionable thing about your mother. (I.Shaw)

Source:<V.A.K.>

••

эвфемизм

a) a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one

b) a synonym which aims at producing a deliberately mild effect

e.g. to die = to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone; to kick the bucket, to give up the ghost, to go west

e.g. to lie = to possess a vivid imagination, to tell stories; speak with a forked tongue, throw a curve

e.g. They think we have come by this horse in some dishonest manner.\[= have stolen it\] (Dickens)

Source:<I.R.G.>

See: <periphrasis>

Syn.: logical periphrasis, euphemistic periphrasis, euphemism

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{{ Арнольд И.В. }}

convergence

конвергенция

схождение в одном месте пучка стилистических приёмов, участвующих в единой стилистической функции

e.g. And heaved and heaved, still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as if its vast tides were a conscience. (H. Melville – Moby-Dick)

e.g. Sara was a menace and a tonic, my best enemy; Rozzie was a disease, my worst friend. (J.Gary – The Horse’s Mouth)

e.g. The rank and file of doctors are no more scientific than their tailors; or their tailors are no less scientific than they. (B.Shaw) (<parallel construction>, <anadiplosis>, <antithesis>, <negation>)

Source:<I.V.A.>

e.g. The more you study, the more you know, the more you know the more you forget. (proverb) (<parallel construction>, <anaphora>, <anticlimax>)

e.g. Live hundred years, learn hundred years, and die a fool! (proverb)(<parallel construction>, <epiphora>, <anticlimax>

See: <syntactical convergence>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>

superfluity

избыточность

величина, характеризующая представление сообщения большим числом знаков, чем это было бы необходимо при отсутствии помех(I.V.A.)

coupling

сцепление

появление сходных элементов в сходных позициях (I.V.A.)

e.g. Hedges have eyes and walls have ears. (proverb)

e.g. I kissed thee ere I killed thee. (Shakespeare)

e.g. A Soul as full of Worth as void of Pride, // Which nothingSeeks to show, or needs to hide, // Which nor to guilt nor fear its Caution owes, // And boasts a Warmth that from no passion flows. (A.Popa to J.Kregs)

See: <parallel construction>

allegory

аллегория

выражение отвлечённой идеи в развёрнутом художественном образе с развитием ситуации и сюжета(I.V.A.)

e.g. See: Sonnet LX by W.Shakespeare,Дж. Бэньяна «Путь паломника», «Божественная комедия» Данте ()

trope

троп

троп

лексическое изобразительно-выразительное средство, в котором слово или словосочетание употребляется в преобразованном значении (I.V.A.)

See: <tropes>; <lexical SDs>

tropes

include: <epithet>, <metaphor>, <metonymy>, <oxymoron>, <periphrasis>, <personification>, <simile>

See: <trope>; <lexical SDs>

semi-marked structure

полуотмеченная структура

структура с нарушением лексической (once bellow a time) или грамматической (chips of when) сочетаемости(Н.Хомский)

e.g. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (Н.Хомский)

e.g. a grief ago, a farmyard away, all the sun long, a white noise, the shadow of a sound, a pretty how town, little whos, he danced his did, for as long as forever ise.g. He is dreadfully married. He is the most married man I ever saw. (A.Ward)

Source:<I.V.A.>

autology

автология

особый стилистический приём (минус-приём) преднамеренной простоты описания посредством слов, употреблённых только в прямых значениях (I.V.A.)

See: <stylistic device>

synonyms

синонимы

слова, принадлежащие к одной части речи, близкие или тождественные по предметно-логическому значению хотя бы в одном из своих лексико-семантических вариантов и такие, что для них можно указать контексты, в которых они взаимозаменяемы(I.V.A.)

See: <synonymical repetition>; <logical periphrasis>; <lexical SDs>

transposition

grammatical metaphor

транспозиция

1a) расхождение между традиционно обозначающим и ситуативно обозначающим на уровне морфологии

1b) стилистический эффект употребления слов разных частей речи и их форм в необычных лексико-грамматических и грамматических значениях и/или с необычной референтной отнесённостью

See: <personification>

2) употребление синтаксических структур в несвойственных им денотативных значениях и с дополнительными коннотациями

Например:

e.g. Риторические вопросы служат эмфатическим утверждением, а повелительные предложения могут иногда передавать не побуждение к действию, а угрозу или насмешку. Эмфатическое отрицание выражается предложениями, в которых нет отрицательных слов.

e.g. Catch you taking liberties with a gentleman! (B.Shaw)

- выражается в нарушении валентностных связей, что создаёт дополнительные коннотации оценочности, эмоциональности, экспрессивности или стилистической отнесённости, а также в семантическом осложнении лексического значения

See: <rhetorical question>

Syn.: transposition, grammatical metaphor

zoonymic metaphor

zoomorphism

зоонимическая метафора, зооморфизм

применение к людям слов второго разряда, т.е. названий животных, птиц и фантастических существ (метафорическое, эмоционально окрашенное и нередко обидное)(I.V.A.)

e.g. ass, bear, beast, bitch, bookworm, donkey, duck, kid, monkey, mule, pig, shark, snake, swine, tabby, toad, wolf, worm, angel, devil, imp, sphinx, witch (I.V.A.)

e.g. I was not going to have all the [u]old tabbies[/u] bossing her around just because she is not what they call “our class”. (A.Wilson - The Middle Age)

e.g. What were you talking about to that old mare downstairs? (S.Delaney)

e.g. Don’t be such a donkey, dear. (C.P.Snow)

Syn.: zoonymic metaphor,zoomorphism

group genitive

group possessive

групповой генитив

Падежный суффикс генитива ('s) может присоединяться не к основе, как обычно, а к целому словосочетанию или предложению

e.g. She's the boy I used to go with's mother. // She's the man that bought my wheelbarrow's wife. // It's the young fellow in the backroom's car. // He is the niece, I told you about's husband. (J.Bailey)

Морфема - показатель генитива - присоединяется во всех этих примерах не к основе, а к целому определительному комплексу - существительному с определяющим его придаточным предложением.

Source:<I.V.A.>

••

is the construction by which the ending -'s of the possessive case can be added to the last word of a noun phrase, which is regarded as a single unit:

e.g. The king of Spain's daughter.

e.g. John and Mary's baby.

e.g. Somebody else's umbrella.

e.g. A quarter of an hour's drive.

Expressions like these are natural and acceptable.

Informal language, however, permits the extension of the construction to long and complicated phrases:

e.g. The people in the house opposite's geraniums.

e.g. The woman I told you about on the phone yesterday's name is Thompson.

e.g. The man who called last week's umbrella is still in the hall.

In these, the connection between the words forming the group possessive is much looser and more complicated than in the earlier examples. The effect is often somewhat ludicrous.

Expressions of this sort should not be used in serious prose.

e.g. [u]Substitute:[/u]

e.g. The geraniums of the people in the house opposite

e.g. The name of the woman I told you about on the phone yesterday is Thompson.

e.g. The umbrella of the man who called last week is still in the hall.

Source:The Oxford Guide to English Usage

[m5][url]http://www.englspace.com/dl/files/oxfrd_gu.zip[/url]

See: <morphological level>, <colloquial type of language>

elative

элятив

безотносительно большая степень признака(I.V.A.)

e.g. a most valuable idea, the sweetest baby, the newest fashion of all, a most foolish wife; the orangemostest drink in the world(I.V.A.)

e.g. You cannot be deader then the dead. (E.Hemingway)

e.g. Oh, Josie, you are a naughty girl, you really are. I was hoping you’d have everything nice and clean and tidy when I came in. (J.Osborne and A.Creighton)

See: <morphological level>

reprise

реприза

фигура речи, которая состоит в повторении звуков, слов, морфем, синонимов или синтаксических конструкций в условиях достаточной тесноты ряда, т.е. достаточно близко друг от друга, чтобы их можно было заметить.(I.V.A.)

e.g. Beat! beat! drums! – blow! bugles! blow! (W.Whitman)

e.g. Tiger, tiger, burning bright. (W.Blake)

e.g. ... where white horses and black horses and brown horses and white and black horses and brown and white horses trotted tap-tap-tap tap-tap-tappety-tap over cobble stones ...(Ш.О’Кейси)

See: <repetition>, <morphemic repetition>, <alliteration>, <assonance>, <synonymical repetition>

syntactical convergence

синтаксическая конвергенция

группа из нескольких совпадающих по функции элементов, объединённых одинаковым синтаксическим отношением и подчиняющему их слову или предложению

e.g. Группа однородных членов предложения (предложных дополнений): To make a separate peace with poverty, filth, immorality or ignorance is treason to the rest of the human race. (S. Levenson. – Everything but Money)

e.g. Однотипные определения, обстоятельства, приложения, подлежащие или сказуемые. Они могут без изменения грамматического смысла соединяться союзами или просто следовать друг за другом.

e.g. Перечислительные предложения, т.е. бессоюзные сложные предложения, состоящие из ряда однородных сочинённых предложений.

- может быть основана на семантической неоднородности синтаксически однородных членов.

Комический или сатирический эффект создаётся так называемым хаотическим перечислением, при котором в один ряд ставятся предметы мелкие, прозаические и возвышенные, живые люди и абстрактные понятия, далёкое и близкое.

e.g. A disorderly rush begins – my parents, my wives, my girls, my children, my farm, my animals, my habits, my money, my music lessons, my face, my soul! I have to cry. (S.Bellow)

Source:<I.V.A.>, 256

See: <convergence>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>

syllepsis

силлепсис

объединение двух или более однородных членов, так или иначе различающихся в грамматическом отношении

e.g. Силлепсис числа – одни элементы ряда стоят во множ. числе, другие – в ед.

Source:<I.V.A.>, 258

See: <zeugma>

negation

отрицание

- в целом более экспрессивно, чем утверждение;

- встречается в среднем во много раз реже, чем утверждение, появление его оказывается особо информативным;

- экспрессивность зависит от функции указывать на то, что связи между названными элементами реально не существует;

- подразумевает контраст между возможным и действительным, что создаёт экспрессивный и оценочный материал;

e.g. The rank and file of doctors are no more scientific than their tailors; or their tailors are no less scientific than they. (B.Shaw)

- позволяет сделать фразу предельно лаконичной и усилить выражение необратимости:

e.g. There is a point of no return unremarked at the time in most men lives. (Gr. Green – The Comedians)

- передаёт компрессию информации:

e.g. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Macbeth)

- может передавать волнение, нерешительность, колебание:

e.g. I’m wondering if I oughtn’t to ring him up. (B.Shaw)

- накопление может свидетельствовать о взволнованности, возбуждении, оживлении:

e.g. Isn’t that lovely? … I shouldn’t be a bit surprised if Robin doesn’t do awfully well in some business quite soon. … Gerald, it isn’t so very long ago that … . If it hadn’t been for the children, I wouldn’t have wanted to go on living. (J.Pristley)

- средство усиления иронии:

e.g. insupportable plagues, effect of that incurable distemper, inexpressible, incurable fools, inconceivable plagues (J.Swift) (подчёркивается безнадёжность «неизлечимых»)

Source:<I.V.A.>, 233

See: <litotes>, <irony>, <double negative>

••

- может употребляться, а может и нет;

- говоря строго логически, в повествовании не нужно (если чего-либо нет, то зачем об этом говорить?), поэтому несёт дополнительные смыслы;

- присутствует в создании экспрессивности языкового выражения;

- имеет широкие выразительные возможности;

- выражает слабое утверждение (<understatement>);

- выражает литоту (<litotes>);

- выражает иронию (<irony>);

- выражает отталкивание от какого-то стандарта, от того, что ожидает читатель;

(включение текста в общий поток литературного процесса, активное воздействие автора на вкусы и взгляды читателя)

e.g. «он не беден» <->«он богат»

e.g. … he had never been handsome.

e.g. … he was not in the last addicted to ..

- ответ на невысказанное предположение;

e.g. «Её отец не был богат» (хотя все считали его богатым), или

e.g. «Её отец не был богат» (а отец такой девушки, скажем, избалованной, непременно должен быть богат)

- само по себе не может выразить сложные оттенки смысла, но лишь участвует в создании стилистико-смыслового эффекта. Основную роль играет содержание высказываний.

e.g. No one who everSeen Catherine Morland in her infancy would have supposed her born to be an heroine.(J.Austen – Northanger Abbey)

Source:<N.F.P.>

See: <litotes>, <double negative>, <morphological level>

особенности газетного стиля

- большой процент собственных имён: топонимов, антропонимов, названий учреждений и организаций и т.д.;

- высокий процент числительных, и вообще слов, относящихся к лексико-грамматическому полю множественности;

- обилие дат;

- обилие интернациональных слов и склонность к инновациям, которые, однако, весьма быстро превращаются в штампы;

e.g. vital issue, tree world, pillar of society, bulwark of liberty, escalation of war

- большой процент абстрактных слов, хотя информация, как правило, конкретна;

- обилие не столько эмоциональной, сколько оценочной или экспрессивной лексики;

e.g. When the last Labour Government was kicked out (Daily Mail)

- специфическое построение газетных заголовков: краткость, аббревиатуры, атрибутивные цепочки (левых определений), предикатный характер, вспомогательный глагол часто опущен, именные группы, почти не встречается предлог of;

e.g. Back to work – to kill the bill.

e.g. Convict sentenced to life for coffin girl kidnap.

e.g. 28 days strike notice now given.(Daily Worker)

- множество цитат и прямой речи, развитая система различных способов передачи чужой речи;

- замена простого глагола устойчивым сочетанием, часто в пассивной форме;

e.g. render imperative, militate against, make contact with, be subjected to, have the effect of, play a leading part (role) in, take effect, exhibit a tendency to, serve the purpose of; greatly to be desired, a development to be expected, brought to a satisfactory conclusion

- предложным оборотам всегда отдаётся предпочтение перед герундием;

e.g. by examination of <-- by examining

- простые короткие слова заменяются оборотами с союзами и предлогами;

e.g. with respect to, having regard to, in view of, on the hypothesis that

- клише и литоты придают тексту глубокомысленное звучание, даже если содержание совершенно банально;

e.g. In my opinion it is not an unjustifiable assumption that= I think that ...

- высокий удельный вес неличных форм, сложных атрибутивных образований;

- особенности порядка слов: положение обстоятельств определённого времени между подлежащим и сказуемым, что концентрирует своей необычностью внимание на сказуемом;

e.g. A group of Tory backbenchers yesterday called for severe restrictions of the CND Easter peace demonstration (Morning Star)

Source:<I.V.A.>, 342

••

-объединение в одном предложении разнородных, относительно независимых мыслей:

e.g. A police Advisory Board composed of twelve representatives from police authorities, nine from the Federation, three representing superintendents, and eight representing Chief Officers with the Home Secretary or Home Office representative in the chair, has a general consultative and advisory function on police matters but the Home Secretary need not accept its advice.

[lang id =2]Это предложение включает, по крайней мере, три самостоятельные мысли: (1) состав консультативного бюро, (2) роль министра внутренних дел в работе бюро, (3) функции и права бюро.

Source:Комиссаров В.Н. Теория перевода. С. 77

See: <features of newspaper style>, <newspaper style>

общие особенности научного стиля

- характерен для текстов, предназначенных для сообщения точных сведений из какой-либо специально области и для закрепления процесса познания;

- стилеобразующий фактор: необходимость доходчивости и логической последовательности изложения сложного материала, большая традиционность;

- единственная функция: интеллектуально-коммуникативная;

- каждый абзац начинается с ключевого предложения, излагающего основную мысль;

- удовлетворяет требованиям логического построения и максимальной объективности изложения;

- отражает работу разума и адресован разуму;

- отсутствие или ограниченность контакта с получателем;

Source:<I.V.A.>

See: <scientific style>

лексические особенности научного стиля

- бросающаяся в глаза особенность: использование специальной терминологии;

- слова употребляются либо в основных прямых, либо в терминологических значениях, но не в экспрессивно-образных;

- специальные устойчивые выражения и наречия;

e.g. to sum up, as we haveSeen, so far we have been considering; finally, again, thus

- помимо нейтральных слов и терминологии употребляются т.н. книжные слова;

e.g. automata, perform, cardinal, comprise, susceptible, analogous, approximate, calculation, circular, heterogeneous, initial, internal, maximum, minimum, phenomenon – phenomena, respectively, simultaneous, automation – automata

- логическое подчёркивание м.б. выражено лексически;

e.g. note that…, I wish to emphasise…, another point of considerable interest is …, an interesting problem is that of …, one of the most remarkable of …, phenomena is …, it is by no means trivial …

- преобладание количественной экспрессивности;

e.g. very far from conservative, much less limited, almost all of which, much the same, most essential, very diverse sorts, long before

Source:<I.V.A.>

See: <scientific style>

морфологические особенности научного стиля

- авторская речь построена в первом лице множ. ч. «мы»: 1) наука создана содружеством большого кол-ва учёных, 2) вовлечение читателей в процесс рассуждения и доказательства;

e.g. we are coming to realise, we have taken in to be, the tube has shown us, we are beginning toSee, we deal with, we are now speaking

- множественное скромности;

e.g. As an illustration let us take the language of Euclidean geometry and algebra. (A.Einstein)

- широко употребляются безличные формы c itи конструкции с one;

e.g. It should be borne in mind, it may beSeen; one may write, one may show, one may assume, one can readilySee

- заметное предпочтение отдаётся пассиву и неличным формам глагола;

e.g. I use the same notation as previously --> The notation is the same as previously used.

- преобладание именных, а не глагольных конструкций даёт возможность большего обобщения, устраняя необходимость указывать время действия;

e.g. when we arrived --> at the time of our arrival

- термины, обозначающие вещество или отвечённое понятие, употребляются в обеих числовых формах без сдвига лексического значения и могут определяться числительными;

e.g. Normally two horizontal permeabilities are measured.

- сравнительно частое употребление настоящего продолженного и будущего вместо простого настоящего;

e.g. Today we are coming to realize that … . We are beginning to See that … . Finally, as long as the automaton is running, … .

e.g. The information fed into this central control system will very often contain information concerning the functioning of the effectors themselves. (N.Wiener – Cybernetics …)

Source:<I.V.A.>

See: <scientific style>

синтаксические особенности научного стиля

- синтаксическая структура: стройная, полная и, по возможности, стереотипная; преобладают сложноподчинённые предложения, простые – развёрнуты за счёт однородных членов;

- преимущественно прямой порядок слов;

- широкое использование различных типов определений; почти каждое существительное имеет постпозитивное или препозитивное определение, предложный, причастный, герундиальный или инфинитивный оборот

e.g. To cover this aspect of communication engineering we had to develop a statistical theory of the amount of information, in which the unit of the amount of information was that transmitted as a single decision between equally probable alternatives. (N.Wiener – Cybernetics …)

- специфичны: препозитивные определительные группы;

e.g. automatic gyrocompass ship-steering systems, anti-aircraft fire-control systems, automatically-controlled oil-cracking stills, ultra rapid computer machines, very old steam-engine governor. (N.Wiener – Cybernetics …)

- обилие и разнообразие союзов и союзных слов, двойных союзов,(эксплицитно выраженные связи между элементами);

e.g. that, and that, than, if, as, or, nor; not merely ... but also, whether ... or, both ... and, as ... as ...; thereby, therewith, hereby

Source:<I.V.A.>

See: <scientific style>

{{======================================================}}

{{И.Р.Гальперин}}

seme

shade of meaning

nuance of meaning

сема, оттенок/элемент значения

- a component part of meaning;

Source:<I.R.G.>:58

Syn.: seme, shade of meaning, nuance of meaning

See: <meaning>,<word>, <sign>

meaning

значение

- representation of a concept;

- takes one of the properties, by which a concept is characterised and makes it represent the concept as a whole;

- in reference to concept becomes, as it were, a kind of <metonymy>;

Source:<I.R.G.>:59

- a component (the inner form) of the word through which a concept is communicated (Antrushina)

- presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word

••

- <grammatical meaning> or <structural meaning>

- <lexical meaning> or <dictionarymeaning>

- <logical meaning> or <referential meaning> or <direct meaning> or <denotationalmeaning>

- <nominal meaning>

- <stylistic meaning> or <connotative meaning>

- <emotive meaning> or <emotionalmeaning> or <evaluativemeaning>

- <contextual meaning>

See:<word>, <sign>,<lexical SDs>

contextual meaning

a meaning imposed by and depends on the context;

Source:<I.R.G.>:58,64

See: <meaning>

lexical meaning

dictionary meaning

лексическое значение

- refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether real or imaginary;

- a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept;

- are closely related to a concept;

- are sometimes identified with a concept;

Source:<I.R.G.>:58-59

See: <meaning>

grammatical meaning

structural meaning

грамматическое значение

- refers our mind to relations between words or to some forms of words or constructions bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-system

Source:<I.R.G.>:58

See: <meaning>

denotational meaning

See: <referential meaning>

logical meaning

referential meaning

direct meaning

логическое значение

- the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or object;

- the name by which we recognise the whole of the concept;

- is liable to change;

- of one <word> may denote different concepts;

- has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality

Syn.: logical meaning, referential meaning, direct meaning

Source:<I.R.G.>:64,66

Ant.: <emotive meaning>, <emotional meaning>

See: <nominal meaning>, <meaning>

emotional meaning

evaluative meaning

stylistic meaning

connotative meaning

See: <emotive meaning>

emotive meaning

- also materialises a concept in the word, but, unlike logical meaning, it has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker towards these thighs or to his emotions as such;

- bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through a kind of evaluation of them;

e.g. I feel so darned lonely. (Gr.Green)

- has function to reveal the subjective, evaluating attitude of the writer to the things or events spoken of;

e.g. She has not a flirt, not even a coquette. (Galsworthy)

Source:<I.R.G.>:66

Ant.: <logical meaning>, referential meaning, direct meaning

See: <contextual emotive meaning>, <meaning>

contextual emotive meaning

- an <emotive meaning>, acquired by a word only in a definite context

e.g. liberty, justice, stunning, smart

Source:<I.R.G.>:66

See: <emotive meaning>, <meaning>

nominal meaning

- indicates a particular object out of a class;

- serves the purpose of singling out one definite and singular object out of a whole class of similar objects;

e.g. Hope, Browning, Taylor, Scotland, Black, Chandler, Chester

Source:<I.R.G.>:68

See: <logical meaning>, <meaning>

SPU

supra-phrasal unit

сверхфразовое единство

- a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up by rhythmic and melodic unity;

- is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence;

- generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent structurally (usually by means of pronouns, connectives, tense-forms) and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with);

- can be extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence;

- can be embodied in a sentence if the sentence meets the requirements of this compositional unit;

- though usually a component part of the paragraph, may occupy the whole of the paragraph;

- This structural unit, in its particular way of arranging ideas, belongs almost exclusively to the <belles-lettres style>, though it may be met with to some extent in the <publicist style>. Other styles, judging by their recognised leading features, don not require this mode of arranging the parts of an utterance except in rare cases which may be neglected.

Source:<I.R.G.>:194-196

See: <paragraph>, <belles-lettres style>, <syntactical SDs>

paragraph

абзац

- a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end;

- a distinct portion of a written discourse showing an integral unity;

- (as a linguistic category) a unit of utterance marked off by purely linguistic means: intonation, pauses of various lengths, semantic ties which can be disclosed by scrupulous analysis of the morphological aspect and <meaning> of the component parts, etc.

- a linguistic expression of a logical, pragmatic and aesthetic arrangement of thought;

- the length normally varies from eight to twelve sentences (in <newspaper style> - one or two);

Source:<I.R.G.>:198-199

See: <supra-phrasal unit>, <newspaper style>, <syntactical SDs>

{{пропущены принципы деления на абзацы в разн. стилях}}