Vulgarisms

вульгаризмы

coarse <special colloquial words> with a strong <emotive meaning>, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation (V.A.K.)

e.g. There is so much bad shit between the two gangs that I bet there will be more killings this year.

Source:<V.A.K.>

dialectical words

диалектизмы

such <special colloquial words> which

- are normative and devoid of any <stylistic meaning> in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong;

- markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them;

- differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating <synonyms> for the words, accepted by the language in general.

e.g. ”son of a bitch”, “whore”, “whorehound”

e.g. A hut was all the (= the only) home he ever had.

e.g. Mary sits aside (= beside) of her sister on the bus.

Source:<V.A.K.>

barbarisms

варваризмы

foreign words of phrases, sometimes perverted

иностранные слова или обороты, противоречащие нормам данного языка

e.g. chic, bonmot, en passant, delicatessen, matador, reprimand, helicopter, hippopotamus, marauder, Midi, guerre des baguettes, boulangers, croissants

neologisms

неологизмы

new words or expressions

e.g. take-away, high-rise, hang-glider, palmcorder, wristphone, cellular phone,

lexical stylistic devices

lexical SDs

include: <metaphor>, <personification>; <metonymy>, <synecdoche>; <cluster SDs>; play on words, <irony>, <epithet>, <hyperbole>, <understatement>, <oxymoron>

See: <set expressions>, <cluster SDs>, <tropes>, <syntactical SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

transference

перенос

act of name-exchange, of substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries by new, occasional, individual ones, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things, for the name of one object is transferred onto another, proceeding from their similarity (of shape, colour, function, etc.), or closeness (of material existence, cause/effect, instrument/result, part/whole, etc.) (V.A.K.)

See: <metaphor>, <metonymy>

metaphor

метафора

<transference> of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature common to two different entities, on possessing one common characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common component in their semantic structures.

e.g. ”pancake” for the “sun” (round, hot, yellow)

e.g. ”silver dust” and “sequins” for “stars”

The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects – the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own “legal” name, while each one enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.

The wider is the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected – the more expressive – is the metaphor.

e.g. His voice was a dagger of corroded brass. (S. Lewis)

e.g. They walked alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate. (W.S.Gilbert)

Source:<V.A.K.>

••

a) the power of realising two <lexical meaning>s simultaneously

b) a <SD> when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties

Source:<I.R.G.>

••

скрытое сравнение, основанное на ассоциации по сходству, осуществляемое путём применения названия одного предмета к другому и выявляющее таким образом какую-нибудь важную черту второго(I.V.A.)

e.g. … beams that streamed through the open window.

e.g. floods of tears; a storm of indignation; the apple of the eye, a leg of the table.

See: <personification>, <simile>, <lexical SDs>

personification

олицетворение или персонификация

a <metaphor> that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects (V.A.K.)

e.g. ”the face of London”, “the pain of ocean”

e.g. Geneva, mother of the Red Cross, hostess of humanitarian congresses for the civilizing of warfare. (J.Reed)

e.g. Notre Dame squats in the dusk. (E. Hemingway)

••

1) <троп>, который состоит в перенесении свойств человека на отвлечённые понятия и неодушевлённые предметы, что проявляется в валентности, характерной для существительных – названий лица(I.V.A.)

2) транспозиция, при которой явления природы, предметы или животные наделяются человеческими чувствами, мыслями, речью (антропоморфизм) (I.V.A.)

e.g. Roll on, thou dark and deep blue Ocean – roll!(G. Byron)

See: <transposition>, <synecdoche>, <lexical SDs>

sustained metaphor

prolonged metaphor

a group (cluster) of <metaphor>s, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon to present an elaborated image (V.A.K.)

Syn.: <sustained metaphor>, <prolonged metaphor>

metonymy

метонИмия

<transference> of names based on contiguity (nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of existence in reality but different semantic (V.A.K.)

e.g. ”cup” and “tea” in “Will you have another cup?”

e.g. ”My brass will call your brass” (A. Heiley)

e.g. Dinah, a slim, fresh, pale eighteen, was pliant and yet fragile. (C.Holmes)

••

is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and <contextual meaning>s, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent (I.R.G.)

••

- <троп>, основанный на ассоциации по смежности: вместо названия одного предмета употребляется название другого, связанного с первым постоянной внутренней или внешний связью(I.V.A.)

e.g. Give everyman thy ear and few thy voice. (W.Shakespeare)

e.g. the Crown (The Queen), cup (a drink), hand (a worker), cars full of moustaches (men), a beard (a man with beard), the Kremlin (the RF government)

See: <synecdoche>, <lexical SDs>

synecdoche

синекдоха

a <metonymy> based on the relations between the part and the whole (V.A.K.)

e.g. He made his way through perfume and conversation. (I.Shaw)

e.g. His mind was alert and people asked him to dinner not for old times’ sake, but because he was worth his salt. (Maugham)

••

- разновидность метонимии, состоящая в замене одного названия другим по признаку партитивного количественного отношения между ними. Например, название целого заменяется названием его части, общее – названием частного, множественное число – единственным и наоборот. (I.V.A.)

See: <personification>, <lexical SDs>

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cluster SDs

a small group (cluster) of SDs, which

- operate on the same linguistic mechanism: namely, one word-form is deliberately used in two <meaning>s;

- have humorous effect, and

- include: <pun> or <paronomasia> or <play on words>, <zeugma>, <violation of phraseological units>, <semantically false chains>, <nonsense of non-sequence>;

Source:<V.A.K.>, 48

See: <lexical SDs>, <syntactical SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

pun

paronomasia

play on words

парономасия, игра слов

simultaneous realisation of two <meaning>s through

a) misinterpretation of one speaker’s utterance by the other, which results in his remark dealing with a different meaning of the misinterpreted word or its homonym

e.g. ”Have you beenSeeing any spirits?” “Or taking any?” – added Bob Allen. (Dickens) (The first “spirit” refers to supernatural forces the second one – to strong drinks)

b) speaker’s intended violation of the listener’s expectation

e.g. There comes a period in every man’s life, but she is just a semicolon in his. (B.Evans) (a punctuation mark instead of an interval of time)

e.g. There are two things I look for in a man. A sympathetic character and full lips. (I.Shaw)

Source:<V.A.K.>, 48

e.g. The Importance of being Earnest (Wilde)

e.g. ”Bow to the board,” said Bumble. Oliver brushed away tow or three tears that were lingering in his eyes; andSeeing no board but the table. fortunately bowed to that” (Dickens)

••

близость звучания контекстуально связанных слов. (I.V.A.)

e.g. But still he strummed on, and his mind wandered in and out of poultry and politics, ... (Galsworthy)

Syn.: pun, paronomasia, play on words

See: <cluster SDs>

zeugma

зевгма

a cluster SD, when a polysemantic verb that can be combined with nouns of most varying semantic groups is deliberately used with two of more homogeneous members, which are not connected semantically

Source:<V.A.K.>, 49

e.g. He took his hat and his leave. (Dickens)

e.g. He lost his hat and his temper. (Dickens)

e.g. She went home, in a flood of tears and a sedan chair. (Dickens)

e.g. The Rich arrived in pairs and also in Rolls Royces. (Dickens)

e.g. She plunged into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room.

••

a) the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferred

b) the realisation of two <meaning>s with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct or indirect)

e.g. Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. (B.Shaw)

e.g. … Whether the Nymph // Shall stain her Honour or her new Brocade // Or lose her Heart or necklace at a Ball (Pope – The rape of the Lock)

Source:<I.R.G.>

••

Английские авторы часто используют этот приём для создания определённого юмористического или иронического эффекта.

e.g. And now must come swift action, for we have here some four thousand words and not a tear shed and never a [u]pistol, joke safe, nor bottle cracked[/u]. (O.Henry)

e.g. Michael … suggested to the camera that it would miss the train. It at once took a final photograph of Michael in front of the hut, two cups of tea at the manor, and its departure. (Galsworthy)

e.g. Шли три студента, один – в кино, другой – в сером костюме, третий – в хорошем настроении.

Source:Комиссаров В.Н. – Слово о переводе. М., 1973

See: <semantically false chains>, <cluster SDs>

semantically false chains

a variation of <zeugma> when the number of homogeneous members, semantically disconnected, but attached to the same verb, increases (V.A.K.)

e.g. A Governess wanted. Must possess knowledge of Romanian, Russian, Italian, Spanish, German, Music and Mining Engineering. (S. Leacock)

e.g. Men, pals, red plush seats, white marble tables, waiters in white aprons. Miss Moss walked through them all. (A.Milne)

See: <cluster SDs>