29.Syntactic way of word-formation in the English and Ukrainian languages: compounding.

Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms. In a compound word the immediate constituents obtain integrity and structural cohesion that make them function in a sentence as a separate lexical unit.

C o m p o u n d i n g or w o r d -c o m p o s i t i o n is one of the productive types of word-formation in Modern English. Compounds are made up of two ICs which are both derivational bases. Compound words are inseparable vocabulary units. They are formally and semantically dependent on the constituent bases and the semantic relations between them which mirror the relations between the motivating units. The ICs of compound words represent bases of all three structural types. The bases built on stems may be of different degree of complexity as, e.g., week-end, office-management, postage-stamp, aircraft-carrier, fancy-dress-maker, etc. However, this complexity of structure of bases is not typical of the bulk of Modern English compounds.

30. Compounds and free word-groups in the English and Ukrainian languages

Criteria for differentiation

The graphic criterion is

A solid spelling (railway)

Hyphenated spelling (ice-cream)

The phonetic criterion is

A unity stress (‘blackboard)

A double stress (‘washing-‘machine)

A level stress (‘new-‘born)

The morphological criterion

A rigidly fixed word order (chess-board)

With a connective element: -s-(craftsman), -o-(anglosaxon), -i-(handicrafts)in Ukr:o,e

The semantic criterion differentiates compounds into:

Semantically transparent:

Fully motivated (sky-blue)

Partially motivated (hand-bag)

Semantically non-transparent(idiomatic) eye-wash

31. Classification of compounds in the English and Ukrainian languages

Relations between components:

Coordinative (bye-bye)

Subordinate (stone-deaf, age-long)

The part of speech to which the compound belongs:

Compound nouns (bedroom)

Compound verbs (to house-keep)

Compound adjectives (snow-white)

The type of composition:

Syntactic (blue-bell, blacklist)

Asyntactic (red-hot, pale-blue)

The type of connection:

Rigidly fixed (doorstep, babysitter)

With a linking element (speedometer, spokesman)

The type of components of the compound:

Compounds proper (looking-glass)

Derivational compounds (long-legged)

Correlation between compounds and free phrases:

Adjectival-nominal (snow-white)

Verbal-nominal (bottle-opener)

Nominal (horse-race)

Verbal-adverbal (a breakdown)

32.

S h o r t e n i n g .Distinctionshouldbemadebetweenshorten-”ing

whichresultsinnew l e x i c a l itemsand a specifictypeofshortening

properonlytowrittenspeechresultinginnumerous g r a p h i c a l abbreviations

whichareonlysignsrepresentingwordsandword-groupsofhighfrequency

ofoccurrenceinvariousspheresofhumanactivityasforinstance,

RDforRoadandStforStreetinaddressesonenvelopesandinletters; tu

fortube, aerforaerialinRadioEngineeringliterature, etc. Englishgraphical

abbreviationsincluderathernumerousshortened‘variantsofLatinand

Frenchwordsandword-groups, e.g.: i.e. (L. idest) —‘thatis’; R.S.V.P.

(Fr. —Repondezs'ilvousplait) —‘replyplease’, etc. Transformationsofword-groupsintowordsinvolvedifferenttypes

oflexicalshortening: ellipsisorsubstantivisation, initialletterorsyllable

abbreviations (alsoreferredtoasacronyms), blendings, etc.

Acronymsandletterabbreviationsarelexicalabbreviations

of a phrase. Therearedifferenttypesofsuchabbreviationsand

thereisnounanimityofopinionamongscholarswhetherallofthemcan

beregardedasregularvocabularyunits. Itseemslogicaltomakedistinction

betweenacronymsandletterabbreviations. Letterabbreviationsare

merereplacementsoflongerphrasesincludingnamesofwell-knownorganisations

ofundeniablecurrency, namesofagenciesandinstitutions,

politicalparties, famouspeople, namesofofficialoffices, etc. Theyarenot

spokenortreatedaswordsbutpronouncedletterbyletterandas a rule

possessnootherlinguisticformspropertowords. Thefollowingmay

serveasexamplesofsuchabbreviations: CBW= chemicalandbiological

warfare, DOD= DepartmentofDefence (oftheUSA)

Acronymsareregularvocabularyunitsspokenaswords. They

areformedinvariousways:

1) fromtheinitiallettersorsyllablesof a phrase( NATO,UNESCO) 2) Acronymsmaybeformedfromtheinitialsyllablesofeachwordof

thephrase, e.g. Interpol= inter/nationalpol/ice 3) Acronymsmaybeformedby a combinationoftheabbreviationof

thefirstorthefirsttwomembersofthephrasewiththelastmemberundergoing

nochangeatall, e.g. V-day= VictoryDay Blendingsaretheresultofconsciouscreationofwordsbymerging

irregularfragmentsofseveralwordswhichareaptlycalled“splinters.”(smog–smoke+fog) Clippingreferstothecreationofnewwordsbyshortening a word

oftwoormoresyllables (usuallynounsandadjectives) withoutchanging

itsclassmembership (doc)

33. TherearecasesinthehistoryoftheEnglishlanguagewhen

a wordstructurallymorecomplexservedastheoriginalelementfrom

which a simplerwordwasderived. Thosearecasesoftheprocesscalled

back-formation (orback-derivation) 1, cf. beggar—tobeg; editor—to

edit; chauffeur—tochauffandsomeother Sound-interchange (distinctive stress)

aswellasstress-interchangeinfacthasturnedinto a meansofdistinguishing

primarilybetweenwordsofdifferentpartsofspeechandas

suchisratherwide-spreadinModernEnglish, e.g. tosing—song, to

live—life, strong—strength, etc. Italsodistinguishesbetweendifferent

word-forms, e.g. man—men, wife—wives, toknow—knew, to

leave—left, etc.

Sound-interchangefallsintotwogroups: vowel-interchangeandconsonant-

interchange. Bymeansofvowel-interchangewedistinguishdifferentpartsof

speech, e.g. full—tofill, food—tofeed, blood—tobleed, etc. In

somecasesvowel-interchangeiscombinedwithaffixation, e.g. long—

length, strong—strength, broad—breadth, etc. Thetypeofconsonant-interchangetypicalofModernEnglishistheinterchange

of a voicelessfricativeconsonantin a nounandthecorresponding

voicedconsonantinthecorrespondingverb, e.g. use—touse, mouth

—tomouth, house—tohouse, advice—toadvise, etc.

34.

Wordsofnativeoriginconsistforthemostpartofveryancientelements—

Indo-European, GermanicandWestGermaniccognates. Thebulk

oftheOldEnglishword-stockhasbeenpreserved, althoughsomewords

havepassedoutofexistence. Whenspeakingabouttheroleofthenative

elementintheEnglishlanguagelinguistsusuallyconfinethemselvestothe

smallAnglo-Saxonstockofwords, whichisestimatedtomake 25—30%

oftheEnglishvocabulary.

Toassignthenativeelementitstrueplaceitisnotsoimportantto

countthenumberofAnglo-Saxonwordsthathavesurviveduptoour

days, astostudytheirsemanticandstylisticcharacter, theirword-building

ability, frequencyvalue, collocability.

AlmostallwordsofAnglo-Saxonoriginbelong

toveryimportantsemanticgroups. They

includemostoftheauxiliaryandmodal

verbs(shall, will, must, can, may, etc.), pronouns (I, you, he, my, his,

who, etc.), prepositions(in, out, on, under, etc.), numerals(one, two,

three, four, etc.) andconjunctions(and, but, till, as, etc.). Notionalwords

ofAnglo-Saxonoriginincludesuchgroupsaswordsdenotingpartsofthe

body(head, hand, arm, back, etc.), membersofthefamilyandclosest

relatives(farther, mother, brother, son, wife), naturalphenomenaand

planets(snow, rain, wind, sun, moon, star, etc.), animals(horse, cow,

sheep, cat), qualitiesandproperties(old, young, cold, hot, light, dark,

long), commonactions(do, make, go, come, see, hear, eat, etc.), etc.

Mostofthenativewordshaveundergonegreatchangesintheirsemantic

structure, andas a resultarenowadayspolysemantic, e.g. thewordfinger

doesnotonlydenote a partof a handasinOldEnglish, butalso 1) the

partof a glovecoveringoneofthefingers, 2) a finger-likepartinvarious

machines, 3) a handof a clock, 4) anindex,