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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5733_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана
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PETHIDINE
Scientific Name: Meperidine
Molecular structure:
Physical Properties
Appearance: a white crystalline powder
Colour: white or off-white
Odour: faint odor, described as slightly sweet or medicinal
Taste:
M.p: 186-189°C
B.p: 360-365°C
Solubility: water and ethanol.
Molar mass: 247.33g/mol
Chemical Properties
Chemical formula: C15H21NO2.
Chemical classification: Pethidine belongs to the class of opioids, which are a group
of substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects. Within
the opioid class, pethidine is specifically classified as a phenylpiperidine derivative.
This classification is based on its chemical structure, which includes a phenyl ring
and a piperidine ring. Phenylpiperidine opioids, such as pethidine and its
derivatives, have specific pharmacological properties and are widely used for pain
management in medical practice.
Functional group: The functional groups present in the chemical structure of
pethidine (meperidine) are:
Amine group (NH2): This functional group consists of a nitrogen atom
bonded to two hydrogen atoms. In pethidine, the amine group is part of
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the piperidine ring, contributing to its basicity and participation in
metabolic reactions.
Ether group (C-O-C): Pethidine contains an ether functional group within
its structure. This group consists of an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon
atoms, forming a bridge between them. In pethidine, the ether group
connects the phenyl ring to the piperidine ring.
Ketone group (C=O): Pethidine contains a ketone functional group, which
consists of a carbon atom doubly bonded to an oxygen atom. In pethidine,
the ketone group is located on the piperidine ring.group:
PH: 3.5 and 6.5
How It Is Made ?/From Whether It Is Obtained?
1. Starting Materials: The synthesis of pethidine starts with precursor
chemicals, which include compounds like 4-phenylpiperidine. These
precursor chemicals are commercially available or can be synthesized
through organic chemistry techniques.
2. Chemical Reactions: The precursor chemicals undergo several chemical
reactions to form the pethidine molecule. These reactions involve the
manipulation of chemical bonds, addition or removal of functional groups,
and purification steps to isolate the desired product.
3. Purification: Once the pethidine molecule is formed, it undergoes
purification steps to remove any impurities or by-products formed during
the synthesis process. Purification techniques may include processes like
crystallization, distillation, or chromatography.
4. Formulation: After purification, the pethidine is typically formulated into
its final pharmaceutical form, which may include tablets, capsules, or
injectable solutions. Formulation involves mixing the purified pethidine
with other pharmaceutical ingredients such as binders, fillers, and
solvents to achieve the desired dosage form.
Route of Administration:
Oral: Pethidine is available in oral forms such as tablets and capsules.
When taken orally, the medication is absorbed through the
gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to provide systemic pain
relief.
Intravenous (IV) Injection: Pethidine can be administered intravenously,
typically in hospital settings or under the supervision of a healthcare
professional. IV injection allows for rapid onset of action, making it
suitable for the management of acute pain.
Intramuscular (IM) Injection: Pethidine injections can also be
administered into the muscle tissue, commonly in settings where IV access
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may not be readily available or when continuous infusion is not necessary.
IM injection provides relatively rapid absorption and onset of action.
Subcutaneous (SC) Injection: In some cases, pethidine may be
administered subcutaneously, where the medication is injected into the
fatty tissue just beneath the skin. Subcutaneous injection offers an
alternative route for pain relief, especially when IV or IM administration is
not feasible.
Pharmacological Action of Pethidine:
Analgesia: Pethidine exerts its primary pharmacological effect by binding
to and activating opioid receptors, particularly the mu-opioid receptors, in
the brain and spinal cord. Activation of these receptors inhibits the
transmission of pain signals, resulting in pain relief
Central Nervous System Depression: Pethidine, like other opioid
medications, can cause central nervous system depression, leading to
effects such as sedation, drowsiness, and respiratory depression. These
effects are dose-dependent and can vary in intensity based on the dosage
administered.
Euphoria and Sedation: Pethidine has the potential to induce euphoria, a
sense of well-being, and relaxation due to its action on opioid receptors in
the brain's reward pathways. However, these effects also contribute to the
medication's abuse potential and risk of addiction.
Respiratory Depression: Pethidine can suppress the respiratory drive,
particularly at higher doses or when used in combination with other
central nervous system depressants such as benzodiazepines or alcohol.
Respiratory depression is a potentially life-threatening side effect that
requires close monitoring, especially in patients with respiratory
disorders.
Gastrointestinal Effects: Pethidine can cause constipation due to its action
on opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to decreased
bowel motility and increased water absorption in the intestines.
Pupil Constriction: Pethidine, like other opioids, can cause miosis
(constriction of the pupil) due to its effect on the parasympathetic nervous
system.
Histamine Release: Pethidine has the potential to release histamine,
leading to effects such as flushing, itching, and hypotension, particularly
with rapid intravenous administration.
Analysis
Physical Method:
Spectroscopy Techniques:
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UV-Vis Spectroscopy: This method measures the absorbance of ultraviolet
or visible light by the compound. Pethidine may have characteristic
absorption peaks in certain wavelength ranges, allowing for its
identification and quantification.
IR Spectroscopy: Infrared spectroscopy can be used to analyze the
functional groups present in pethidine molecules. It measures the
absorption of infrared radiation, providing information about molecular
structure and composition.
NMR Spectroscopy: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is a
powerful technique for elucidating the structure of organic compounds,
including pethidine. By analyzing the chemical shifts and coupling
patterns of hydrogen and carbon atoms in the molecule, NMR can confirm
the identity of pethidine.
Chromatography Techniques:
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): HPLC separates and
quantifies compounds based on their interaction with a stationary phase
and a mobile phase. Pethidine can be separated from other components in
a mixture and detected using UV or other detectors.
Gas Chromatography (GC): GC is another chromatographic technique that
can be used for the analysis of volatile or thermally stable compounds like
pethidine. It separates compounds based on their vapor pressure and
affinity for the stationary phase.
Mass Spectrometry (MS):
GC-MS or LC-MS: Coupling gas or liquid chromatography with mass
spectrometry allows for the identification and quantification of pethidine
based on its mass-to-charge ratio and fragmentation pattern. This
technique is highly sensitive and specific, making it useful for forensic
analysis and drug testing.
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD): XRD can be employed to determine the crystal
structure of solid samples of pethidine. By analyzing the diffraction
patterns produced when X-rays interact with the sample's crystal lattice,
XRD can provide information about its molecular arrangement.
Chemical Method:
Titration:
Acid-Base Titration: Pethidine hydrochloride, the salt form of pethidine,
can be titrated with a standardized base (e.g., sodium hydroxide) to
determine its concentration. This method exploits the reaction between
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the acidic proton of the hydrochloride salt and the base to form water and
the corresponding salt.
Colorimetric Methods:
Diazotization Reactions: Pethidine can undergo diazotization reactions,
where the primary amine group (-NH2) reacts with nitrous acid (HNO2) to
form a diazonium salt. This salt can then couple with various coupling
agents to produce colored compounds, whose intensity can be measured
spectrophotometrically to quantify the amount of pethidine present.
Gravimetric Analysis:
Precipitation Reactions: Pethidine hydrochloride can be precipitated as a
relatively insoluble salt (e.g., pethidine hydrobromide) by adding a
suitable precipitating agent (e.g., hydrobromic acid). The resulting
precipitate can then be filtered, dried, and weighed to determine the
amount of pethidine present.
Chemical Derivatization:
Pethidine can undergo chemical derivatization reactions to form stable
derivatives with enhanced properties for analysis. For example, the
primary amine group of pethidine can be acylated with acetic anhydride to
form the corresponding acetamide derivative, which may exhibit different
chemical or physical properties amenable to analysis.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction:
Pethidine can be extracted from a sample matrix using suitable organic
solvents in a liquid-liquid extraction process. This method exploits
differences in solubility between pethidine and other components in the
sample to isolate and concentrate the compound for subsequent analysis.
Electrochemical Methods:
Voltammetry: Pethidine can be analyzed using electrochemical techniques
such as cyclic voltammetry or differential pulse voltammetry. These
methods involve measuring the current response generated by the
oxidation or reduction of pethidine at an electrode surface, allowing for
quantitative analysis.
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PHENADOXONE
Scientific name: Phenadoxone
Molecular structure:
Physical Properties
Appearance: white to off-white crystalline powder or as solid tablets in
pharmaceutical formulations.
Colour: colorless or may have a faint coloration
Odour: odorless or have a faint characteristic odor.
Taste: bitter taste
M.p: 162-165°C (323-329°F).
B.p:
Solubility: It may have limited solubility water but can dissolve in organic
solvents like ethanol or chloroform.
Molar mass: 273.36 grams per mole (g/mol).
Chemical Properties
Chemical formula: C18H19NO3.
Chemical classification: Phenadoxone falls under the category of opioids, which are
a class of drugs that act on opioid receptors in the body to produce analgesia (pain
relief), sedation, and euphoria. More specifically, Phenadoxone is classified as an
opioid agonist-antagonist, meaning that it has both opioid agonist (activating) and
antagonist (blocking) properties, though its antagonist effects are weaker
compared to its agonist effects. This classification distinguishes it from other
opioids like morphine, which are predominantly opioid agonists.
3) Functional group: Phenadoxone contains several functional groups, including an
ether group (-O-) and an amine group (-NH-), as well as aromatic rings. These
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functional groups contribute to its pharmacological activity and chemical
reactivity.
How It Is Made ?/From Whether It Is Obtained?
Synthesis of Phenadoxone: Phenadoxone is synthesized through chemical
reactions in a laboratory. The exact synthesis process can vary depending on the
specific method chosen by chemists. However, it typically involves starting with
precursor compounds and then carrying out a series of reactions to form the
phenadoxone molecule. These reactions may include condensation, reduction, or
other organic chemistry techniques to build the desired molecular structure. The
synthesis is conducted under controlled conditions to ensure the purity and yield
of the final product.
Obtainment of Phenadoxone: Once synthesized, phenadoxone can be
obtained for various purposes. Historically, it was produced by
pharmaceutical companies for use as an opioid analgesic medication.
However, due to concerns about its abuse potential and side effects, its
production and prescription have been largely discontinued in many
countries. Today, it may still be obtained for research purposes or in
historical contexts, but it is not commonly available for medical use.
Route of Administration:
Oral: Phenadoxone may have been available in oral formulations such as
tablets or capsules. When taken orally, the medication is absorbed through
the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to provide systemic
pain relief.
Injection (Intravenous or Intramuscular): Phenadoxone may have been
administered via injection, either intravenously (into a vein) or
intramuscularly (into a muscle). Intravenous injection allows for rapid
onset of action, making it suitable for the management of acute pain.
Intramuscular injection provides relatively rapid absorption and onset of
action as well.
Rectal: In some cases, opioid medications can be administered rectally,
though this route is less common and typically reserved for situations
where other routes are not feasible. OF ADMINISTRATION:
Pharmacological Action:
Analgesia: Phenadoxone exerts its primary pharmacological effect by
binding to and activating opioid receptors, particularly the mu-opioid
receptors. Activation of these receptors inhibits the transmission of pain
signals in the nervous system, leading to pain relief.
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Central Nervous System Depression: Like other opioids, Phenadoxone can
cause central nervous system depression, resulting in effects such as
sedation, drowsiness, and respiratory depression. These effects are dose-
dependent and can vary in intensity based on the dosage administered.
Euphoria and Sedation: Phenadoxone has the potential to induce feelings
of euphoria, relaxation, and sedation due to its action on opioid receptors
in the brain's reward pathways. These effects contribute to its abuse
potential and risk of addiction.
Respiratory Depression: Phenadoxone, like other opioids, can suppress
the respiratory drive, particularly at higher doses or when used in
combination with other central nervous system depressants. Respiratory
depression is a potentially life-threatening side effect that requires close
monitoring, especially in patients with respiratory disorders.
Gastrointestinal Effects: Phenadoxone can cause constipation due to its
action on opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to
decreased bowel motility and increased water absorption in the intestines.
Pupil Constriction: Phenadoxone, like other opioids, can cause miosis
(constriction of the pupil) due to its effect on the parasympathetic nervous
system.
Histamine Release: Phenadoxone has the potential to release histamine,
leading to effects such as flushing, itching, and hypotension, particularly
with rapid intravenous administration.
Analysis
Physical Method:
Melting Point Determination: This method involves heating a small sample
of Phenadoxone and observing the temperature range over which it melts.
The melting point can provide information about the purity and identity of
the compound.
Boiling Point Determination: While less common for solid substances like
Phenadoxone, the boiling point can be determined by heating the
compound and observing the temperature at which it vaporizes. This
method is more applicable for liquids.
Solubility Tests: Phenadoxone can be tested for its solubility in various
solvents, such as water, ethanol, chloroform, or ether. These tests can
provide information about its physical properties and potential
interactions with different solvents.
Density Measurement: The density of Phenadoxone can be determined
using a suitable method, such as a pycnometer or density meter. This
parameter can help in characterizing the physical properties of the
compound.
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Particle Size Analysis: Techniques such as microscopy or laser diffraction
can be used to analyze the particle size distribution of Phenadoxone,
which can impact its properties such as dissolution rate and
bioavailability.
Spectroscopic Methods: Spectroscopic techniques such as UV-Vis
spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy (IR), or nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (NMR) can provide information about the molecular
structure and functional groups present in Phenadoxone without altering
the compound.
Chemical Method:
Titration: Titration involves the controlled addition of a reagent of known
concentration to the Phenadoxone solution until a reaction is completed.
For instance, Phenadoxone may be titrated with a standard solution of
hydrochloric acid (HCl) to determine its acid content.
Colorimetric Methods: Colorimetric methods utilize color changes to
indicate the presence or concentration of a substance. For example,
Phenadoxone may form a colored complex with specific reagents, and the
intensity of the color can be measured spectrophotometrically to
determine its concentration.
Gravimetric Analysis: Gravimetric analysis involves the measurement of
mass to determine the quantity of a substance. Phenadoxone can be
precipitated from solution using a suitable reagent, and the resulting
precipitate can be collected, dried, and weighed to determine its mass.
Chromatography: Chromatographic techniques, such as thin-layer
chromatography (TLC) or high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), can separate and quantify components in a mixture. Phenadoxone
can be separated from other compounds in a mixture based on differences
in their chemical properties and retention times.
Mass Spectrometry (MS): Mass spectrometry can be used to identify and
quantify Phenadoxone based on its mass-to-charge ratio and
fragmentation pattern. This technique is highly sensitive and can provide
structural information about the compound.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): NMR spectroscopy can provide
detailed structural information about Phenadoxone by analyzing the
interactions of its nuclei with a magnetic field. This technique is
particularly useful for elucidating molecular structure and determining
purity.
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PHENAMPROMIDE
Scientific Name: N-(1-ethyl-1-methylpropyl)-3-phenylpropan-1-amine.
Molecular Structure:
Physical Properties:
Appearance: Phenampromide typically presents as a white to off-white
crystalline powder.
Odour: It may have a characteristic odour, although specific descriptions
may vary.
Melting Point: The melting point of Phenampromide is reported to be
around 142-143°C.
Solubility: It is usually soluble in water and ethanol.
Chemical Properties: Here, are some general properties and characteristics of
phenampromide:
Chemical Structure: Phenampromide's chemical structure consists of a
phenylpiperidine backbone. It typically has substitutions and functional
groups attached to this backbone, which determine its specific properties
and pharmacological effects.
Pharmacodynamics: Phenampromide primarily acts as a μ-opioid receptor
agonist, meaning it binds to and activates these receptors in the central
nervous system. This action leads to analgesia (pain relief) and
suppression of cough reflex.
Metabolism: Like many opioids, phenampromide undergoes hepatic
metabolism primarily via cytochrome P450 enzymes, which may result in
the formation of active metabolites and/or inactive metabolites that are
eliminated from the body.
Side Effects: Common side effects associated with phenampromide use
may include respiratory depression, sedation, dizziness, nausea, vomiting,
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