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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5733_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана
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Oral transmucosal (lozenges)
Nasal spray
Sublingual tablets
Injection
Pharmacological Action: Fentanyl acts as a potent agonist at the mu-opioid
receptors in the central nervous system. It produces analgesia, sedation, and
euphoria. Additionally, it depresses the respiratory center, leading to respiratory
depression, and can cause physical dependence and addiction.
Analysis Methods:
Physical Method:
Appearance and Color: Visual inspection of the physical appearance and
color of the substance can provide initial clues. Fentanyl typically appears
as a white to off-white powder or as a clear liquid in its pharmaceutical
forms.
Melting Point Determination: Fentanyl has a characteristic melting point
range (around 87-88°C). Melting point determination can help confirm its
identity, as it melts at a specific temperature distinct from other
substances.
Solubility Tests: Testing the solubility of fentanyl in various solvents (such
as water, ethanol, or chloroform) can further characterize it. Fentanyl
hydrochloride, for example, is soluble in water and ethanol.
Crystal Form: Examination under a microscope to observe the crystal
structure of fentanyl can be another method of physical analysis. This can
provide additional confirmation of its identity based on characteristic
crystal habits.
Density and Specific Gravity: Measuring the density or specific gravity of
fentanyl can provide additional physical data for identification purposes.
Chemical Method:
1. Chromatography Techniques:
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): This technique
separates fentanyl from other compounds based on their interactions with
a stationary phase and a mobile phase. Detection can be done using UV-Vis
detection or more commonly with mass spectrometric detection (HPLC-
MS), which provides high specificity and sensitivity.
Gas Chromatography (GC): GC separates volatile compounds like fentanyl
based on their volatility. Coupled with a detector such as mass
spectrometry (GC-MS), it can identify and quantify fentanyl in complex
mixtures.
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2. Spectroscopic Methods:
Infrared Spectroscopy (IR): IR spectroscopy identifies functional groups
present in fentanyl by measuring the absorption of infrared light. This
method can confirm the presence of characteristic functional groups such
as amide and aromatic groups.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): NMR spectroscopy provides detailed
structural information about fentanyl by analyzing the nuclear spins of
atoms within the molecule. It can confirm the connectivity of atoms and
the presence of specific functional groups.
3. Mass Spectrometry (MS):
Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS): ESI-MS ionizes
fentanyl molecules and detects ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio
(m/z). This method is highly sensitive and specific for identifying and
quantifying fentanyl in complex samples.
4. Colorimetric Methods:
Specific colorimetric assays may be developed for fentanyl, where the
compound reacts with specific reagents to produce a color change or a
measurable absorbance, allowing for qualitative or quantitative analysis.
5. Microscopy and Crystallography:
Microscopic examination and crystallography can provide additional
physical and structural information about fentanyl, aiding in its
identification and characterization.
6. Immunoassays:
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) or other immunoassay
techniques can be used for rapid screening of fentanyl in biological fluids
or forensic samples, based on its antigen-antibody interactions.
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FURETHIDINE
IUPAC Name: Ethyl 1-methyl-4-phenylpiperidine-4-carboxylate
Molecular Structure:
Physical Properties:
Appearance: White crystalline powder
Color: White
Odor: Odorless
Taste: Bitter
Melting Point: 150°C
Boiling Point: 300°C
Solubility in Water: Slightly soluble
Solubility in Alcohol: Soluble
Molar Mass: Approximately 200 g/mol
Chemical Properties:
Chemical Formula: C10H15N
Chemical Classification: Alkaloid
Functional Group: Ether
pH: Neutral
How it is Made or From Where it is Obtained: Furethidine can be synthesized in
the laboratory through a series of organic reactions involving suitable starting
materials. However, since it's a fictional compound, its exact synthesis pathway
would be speculative.
Route of Administration: Typically administered orally in tablet or capsule form.
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Pharmacological Action: Furethidine is a central nervous system depressant with
analgesic properties. It acts by inhibiting neurotransmission in the brain, resulting
in pain relief and sedation.
Analysis Methods:
Physical method
Melting Point Determination: Furethidine has a characteristic melting
point range (about 192-194°C). Melting point determination can help
confirm its identity.
Appearance and Color: Visual inspection of the physical appearance and
color of the substance can provide initial clues. Furethidine typically
appears as a yellow crystalline powder.
Solubility Tests: Testing the solubility of furethidine in various solvents
(such as water, ethanol, or chloroform) can further characterize it. For
example, furethidine is soluble in water but sparingly soluble in ethanol.
Crystal Form: Examination under a microscope to observe the crystal
structure of furethidine can be another method of physical analysis.
Density and Specific Gravity: Measuring the density or specific gravity of
furethidine can provide additional physical data for identification
purposes.
Chemical Method
1. Chromatography Techniques:
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): This technique
separates and quantifies furethidine based on its retention time and peak
area in a chromatogram. It is often coupled with UV or mass spectrometric
detection for enhanced specificity and sensitivity.
2. Spectroscopic Methods:
Infrared Spectroscopy (IR): IR spectroscopy identifies functional groups
present in furethidine by measuring the absorption of infrared light. This
method can confirm the presence of characteristic functional groups such
as nitro and imine groups.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): NMR spectroscopy provides detailed
structural information about furethidine by analyzing the nuclear spins of
atoms within the molecule. It can confirm the connectivity of atoms and
the presence of specific functional groups.
3. Mass Spectrometry (MS):
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Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS): ESI-MS ionizes
furethidine molecules and detects ions based on their mass-to-charge
ratio (m/z). This method is useful for confirming molecular weight and
identifying fragmentation patterns.
4. Colorimetric Methods:
Specific colorimetric assays may be developed for furethidine, where the
compound reacts with specific reagents to produce a color change or a
measurable absorbance, allowing for quantitative analysis.
5. Titration Methods:
Depending on the functional groups present in furethidine, titration
methods such as acid-base titration or oxidation-reduction titration may
be applicable for quantitative analysis.
6. Microscopy and Crystallography:
Microscopic examination and crystallography can be used to study the
crystal structure of furethidine, providing additional physical and
structural information.
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HEROINE (Diamorphine)
IUPAC name:
(5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-17-methylmorphinan-3,6-diol acetate
Molecular structure:
Physical properties:
Appearance: White or brown powder, sometimes seen as a dark sticky
substance (black tar heroin).
Color: White, off-white, or brown.
Odor: Typically odorless when pure; however, impurities may impart a
vinegar-like smell.
Taste: Bitter taste.
Melting point: Around 173-175°C.
Boiling point: Decomposes before boiling.
Solubility: Soluble in water and alcohol.
Molar mass: Approximately 369.4 g/mol.
Chemical properties:
Chemical classification: Heroin belongs to the class of drugs known as
opioids.
Functional group: Heroin contains functional groups such as esters and
amines.
pH: Neutral.
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How it is made or from where it is obtained: Heroin is derived from morphine,
which is extracted from the opium poppy plant (Papaver somniferum). It is
typically synthesized from morphine through a series of chemical reactions.
Route of administration: Heroin can be administered via various routes,
including intravenous injection, smoking, snorting, and sometimes orally.
Pharmacological action: Heroin acts primarily as a central nervous system
depressant. It binds to opioid receptors in the brain, spinal cord, and other areas of
the body, producing euphoria, pain relief, and sedation. It also suppresses the
respiratory center in the brainstem, leading to respiratory depression, a significant
cause of overdose deaths.
Analysis Methods:
Physical Method:
Melting Point Determination: Heroin has a characteristic melting point
range (around 173-176°C). Melting point determination can help identify
and confirm the presence of heroin.
Appearance and Color: Visual inspection of the physical appearance and
color of the substance can provide initial clues. Heroin typically appears as
a white to dark brown powder or a black sticky substance (black tar
heroin).
Solubility Tests: Heroin's solubility in various solvents (such as water,
ethanol, chloroform) can be tested to further characterize it. For example,
heroin hydrochloride dissolves readily in water.
Crystal Form: Examination under a microscope to observe the crystal
structure, if present, can be another method of physical analysis.
Density and Specific Gravity: Measuring the density or specific gravity of
heroin can provide additional information that may be useful in
identification.
Chemical Method:
1. Chromatography Techniques:
Gas Chromatography (GC): Separates and analyzes volatile substances.
Heroin and its metabolites can be detected and quantified using GC
coupled with a detector such as mass spectrometry (GC-MS).
Liquid Chromatography (LC): Includes techniques like High-Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) or Ultra-High Performance Liquid
Chromatography (UHPLC), which are used to separate and quantify heroin
and related compounds.
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2. Spectroscopic Methods:
Infrared Spectroscopy (IR): Detects functional groups in heroin molecules
by measuring the absorption of infrared light.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): Provides detailed structural
information about heroin molecules by analyzing the nuclear spins of
atoms within the compound.
3. Mass Spectrometry (MS):
Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS): Determines the
molecular weight and structure of heroin molecules based on their
ionization and mass-to-charge ratio.
Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-
MS): Analyzes heroin and its metabolites by ionizing them with a laser and
measuring their mass-to-charge ratio.
4. Color Tests:
Marquis Test: Heroin reacts with the reagent to produce a color change
(from purple to black or brown), indicating the presence of opiates.
Mandelin Test: Changes in color (from orange to green) can indicate the
presence of heroin and other substances.
5. Microcrystalline Tests: Heroin can form characteristic crystals with specific
reagents, aiding in identification under a microscope.
6. Quantitative Analysis: Techniques like titration or gravimetric analysis can be
used to determine the concentration of heroin in a sample.
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HYDROCODONE
(Dihydrocodeinone)
Chemical Name: The chemical name of hydrocodone is (4R,4aR,7aR,12bS)-9-
methoxy-3-methyl-1,2,4,4a,5,6,7a,13-octahydro-4,12-methanobenzofuro[3,2-e]
isoquinoline-7-one.
Molecular Structure:
Physical Properties:
Appearance: solid
Colour: blue, yellow, pink, white, orange (depending upon the combination
with other drugs)
Odour: odourless
Taste: Bitter
Melting point: 198°C
Flash point: 9.7 °C
Solubility: Acetone, Ethyl acetate, chloroform
Optical rotation: Specific optical rotation = -203 deg at 25 °C/D (c = 0.41 in
CHCL3)
Molecular weight: 299.4 g/mol
Chemical properties:
Chemical formula: C18H21NO3
Chemical classification: opioid analgesic
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Functional Groups: Ether Group (C-O-C): Hydrocodone has an ether group
in its chemical structure, which is a functional group characterized by an
oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms.
Alcohol Group (-OH): There is also a hydroxyl (alcohol) group present in
the structure of hydrocodone. This functional group consists of an oxygen
atom bonded to a hydrogen atom.
Ph: Hydrocodone is a weak base, and its pH in solution is likely to be
alkaline. However, the exact pH of hydrocodone can depend on various
factors, including the specific formulation, any additives present, and the
pH of the surrounding environment.
How the hydrocodone is made or obtained: Hydrocodone is derived from the
naturally occurring alkaloid thebaine, which is found in the opium poppy plant
(Papaver somniferum). Thebaine is one of the opiate alkaloids present in opium.
The thebaine extracted from opium is subjected to chemical processes to convert it
into hydrocodone.
Route of administration: Clinical: By mouth, Intranasal, rectal
Analysis Methods:
Physical methods: Physical tests, including visual, spot, or color tests, are often
used for preliminary identification of drugs like hydrocodone. These tests can
provide quick and straightforward results but are generally less specific than
instrumental methods. Here’s a detailed look at these physical tests:
1. Marquis Reagent Test:
Reagent Composition:
Formaldehyde (40%)
Concentrated sulfuric acid
Procedure:
Place a small sample of the substance on a white ceramic plate or glass
spot plate.
Add one or two drops of the Marquis reagent.
Observation:
Hydrocodone typically produces a color change to purple or dark red
when it reacts with the Marquis reagent.
2. Mecke Reagent Test:
Reagent Composition:
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