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- •Brief Contents
- •Contents
- •About the Authors
- •Preface
- •Acknowledgments
- •Defining Disorders of Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence
- •What Is Normal?
- •Rates of Disorders in Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence
- •The Role of Values
- •Definitions of Psychopathology and Developmental Psychopathology
- •The Role of Theory in Developmental Psychopathology
- •Physiological Models
- •Psychodynamic Models
- •Behavioral and Cognitive Models
- •Humanistic and Positive Psychology Models
- •Family Models
- •Sociocultural Models
- •The Framework of Developmental Psychopathology
- •Developmental Pathways, Stability, and Change
- •Competence and Incompetence
- •Risk and Resilience
- •Research Strategies in Developmental Psychopathology
- •Classification
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related toPhysiological Functioning, Temperament, and Attachment
- •Disorders of Early Development
- •Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder
- •Disorders of Attachment
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Intelligence and Cognition
- •Intellectual Developmental Disorder
- •Etiology
- •Developmental Course
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Learning Disorders
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Historical and Current Conceptualizations of Autism Spectrum Disorder
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to the Coordination of Social, Emotional, and Cognitive Domains
- •Autism Spectrum Disorder
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Stress and Coping
- •Maltreatment
- •Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Self-Regulation, Effortful Control, and Executive Function
- •Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Oppositional Defiant Disorder
- •Conduct Disorder
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Emotion Experiences, Fears, and Worries
- •Anxiety Disorders
- •Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
- •Somatic Symptom Disorders
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to the Construction of Self and Identity
- •Depressive Disorders
- •Bipolar Disorders
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Suicidality
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Eating and Appearance
- •Eating Disorders
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Assessment and Diagnosis
- •Intervention
- •Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Brain Development, Self-Regulation, and Personality
- •Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
- •Developmental Course
- •Etiology
- •Intervention
- •Personality Disorders in Adolescence and Young Adulthood
- •Psychotic Disorders in Adolescence and Young Adulthood
- •Closing Comments
- •Glossary
- •References
- •Name Index
- •Subject Index

14
Substance-Related Disorders,
Personality Disorders, and
PsychoticDisorders
Chapter Outline
Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Brain
Development, Self-Regulation, and Personality 255
Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders 259
The Case of James
The Case of Luna
Developmental Course 262
The Gateway Hypothesis, Common Liability to Addiction
Model, and Developmental Cascade Models
Etiology 263
Genes and Heredity
Physiological Factors
Psychological Factors
Parents, Peers, and Sociocultural Factors
Learning Objectives
1. Describe the adolescent developmental tasks and challenges
related to brain development, self-regulation, and identity
and personality.
2. Summarize the core processes involved in substance use
disorders, including physical dependence, withdrawal,
psychological dependence, and addiction.
3. Describe multiple pathways for youth diagnosed with
substance use disorders and behavioral addictive disorders.
4. Explain how combinations of risk factors lead to the
emergence and maintenance of substance use disorders and
behavioral addictive disorders.
Assessment and Diagnosis 265
Intervention 266
Prevention
Treatment
Individual Approaches
Family and Group Approaches
Personality Disorders in Adolescence and Young
Adulthood 268
Box 14.1 Emerging Science: The Transition to Psychosis
Psychotic Disorders in Adolescence and Young
Adulthood 270
The Case of Finn
Closing Comments 274
5. Summarize the important components of a comprehensive
assessment for substance use disorders and behavioral
addictive disorders.
6. Provide a critical analysis of the treatments for substance use
disorders in adolescence.
7. Provide a critical analysis of personality pathology and
personality disorder in adolescence.
8. Summarize the important developmental processes
related to the emergence of psychotic disorders in late
adolescence.
254
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Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Brain Development, Self-Regulation, and Personality 255
Along with the emerging capacities and abilities of
adolescence come new domains of risk. Compared to their
younger selves, adolescents get into trouble in any number of
new and more dangerous ways. Driving recklessly, becoming
sexually active, gambling, and using drugs and alcohol are
common forms of risk taking that are frequently observed as
adolescents explore adult behaviors and adult roles. Some of
these behaviors are associated with mortality in adolescents:
accidental death (including car accidents), homicide, and
suicide. Given this increased vulnerability, it is important
to think intentionally about how to provide the best mix
of direction, support, and safety nets for the adolescents we
care so much about. Additional concern is also warranted
because some patterns of distress and dysfunction observed
in adolescence are increasingly likely to be associated
with adult disorder and chronic impairment. We consider
developmental pathways to two types of adult disorder in
the latter half of this chapter.
Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Brain Development, Self-Regulation, and Personality
Critical changes in brain structure and function and in
brain–behavior relationships take place across adolescence
and early adulthood. To provide context for thinking
about these changes, we carefully consider several familiar
beliefs about teenage brains. The first belief is that
adolescents are incapable of making good decisions. This
belief, of course, is an overgeneralization. Adolescents are
indeed capable of good decision making, but they make
better decisions in low-emotion situations than they do
in high-emotion situations. The second belief is that stilldeveloping prefrontal cortex structures and functions
means that adolescents do not display meaningful selfregulation. This is another overgeneralization. While
brain maturation is complex and incomplete, many selfregulatory processes that depend on prefrontal cortex
functioning are actually in place from birth (and have been
discussed in previous chapters). The third belief is that
every adolescent experiences years of “storm and stress.”
This is, again, an overgeneralization. Although many
personal, social, academic, and other changes accompany
adolescence, most adolescents display good adjustment
in these everyday challenging circumstances (Casey &
Caudle, 2013).
With this context in place, we ca n examine severa l changes
in brain structure and function that are important for
understanding self-regulation and risk taking in adolescence.
Many brain regions and circuits display changes reflecting
growth, pruning, and increased efficiency. A great deal of
research and clinical attention is focused on the ongoing
maturation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The PFC is
involved in multiple psychological processes, including the
regulation of cognition, emotion, and behavior. The PFC
has connections to brain regions that are involved with
executive functions such as planning, inhibitory control,
and working memory. The PFC also has connections to the
limbic and striatal regions that are involved with reward
processing and reward-based decision making (Casey &
Caudle, 2013; Luciana, 2013). Individual differences in
brain development and maturation are observed along with
these general trends (Foulkes & Blakemore, 2018).
Changes in reward-related neural circuitry in adolescence
are associated with increased sensitivity to rewards and
incentive motivation (Galván, 2013; Luciana, 2016).
Incentive motivation is observed when adolescents seek out
experiences in pursuit of reward or positive reinforcement
(refer to Figure 14.1). With a less mature executive control
system, adolescents are more likely to engage in rewardseeking behaviors that are risky or impulsive. The dual
systems model helps explain the impact of brain structure
and function on adolescent decision making (Shulman
et al., 2016). According to the dual systems model, the
regions of the brain that are involved with reward mature
early in adolescence. The regions of the brain that are
involved with cognitive control and response inhibition
take longer to develop, with a timeline extending into early
adulthood. These brain changes correlate to behavioral
changes. Behaviors related to reward sensitivity and reward
seeking increase at the start of preadolescence, peak in later
adolescence, and then decline. Self-regulation develops
gradually over the course of adolescence, levelling off in
one’s mid-20s (Shulman et al., 2016; Steinberg et al., 2018;
refer to Figure 14.2). So, for example, “in situations where
adolescents perceive peers as being supportive of a particular
behavior, the perceived rewards in terms of peer acceptance
and fun may outweigh adolescents’ abilities to prioritize
the costs and risks” and choose an alternative, less reckless
behavior (Lansford et al., 2020, p. 76). The imbalance
between reward seeking and self-regulation is more apparent
in high-emotion situations and in social situations (Nigg,
2017; Rudolph et al., 2017).
In addition to these changes in the PFC, rewardrelated circuitry, and incentive motivation, there are other
important developments related to brain structure and
function, brain–behavior relationships, and physiological
functioning. Connections within and between brain regions
exhibit increased organization and efficiency over time.
Atypical variations in connectivity, or disrupted connectivity
development, may be a risk factor for late-adolescent onset
disorders such as schizophrenia (van den Heuvel & Fornito,
2014; Whitaker et al., 2016). The role of sleep in promoting
brain development and function is very important. Sleep
loss and sleep deprivation are associated with decreases in
adjustment and well-being (Galván, 2019).
Stress-sensitive brain regions and circuits are also
influenced by shifts in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis reactivity. Recalibration of stress reactivity and
Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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256 Chapter 14 Substance-Related Disorders, Personality Disorders, and PsychoticDisorders
Figure 14.1 Biological and contextual influences on incentive motivation in adolescence
Biological Influence
Trait level of effortful control;
Trait level of incentive motivation
Puberty
• Gonadal hormones
• Tonic dopamine activity
• Tonic-phasic dopamine
activity
• Phasic DA activity
Integrity of frontolimbic
connections
• Effective prefrontal
function; successful
management of executive
load
Source: Luciana (2013). Adolescent brain development in normality and psychopathology.
Development of
Incentive Motivation
Adolescent increase in
incentive motivation
Seeking of high
reward stimulation
Reward learning
increases in efficiency
Success in social,
academic, and
vocational roles
Incentive motivation
declines
Young adulthood
Sociodemographic Influence
Family background; history
of attachment relations
• Peer presence; peer characteristics
• Family/parental monitoring
• Nature of reward contexts;
substance use, car, etc.
• Socioeconomic status
• Range of available options
regulation is possible, with cascading effects on brain–
behavior processes (DePasquale et al., 2021; also discussed
in Chapter 8). Changes in the socioemotional circuitry are
correlated with the increased salience of peers, the increased
reward value of peers, and increased sensitivity to social
evaluation (Giletta et al., 2021; Lansford et al., 2020;
Steinberg et al., 2018). These brain-behavior associations
reflect ongoing emotional and social development across
adolescence and young adulthood (Bos et al., 2020; Ross
et al., 2019).
Risk taking and self-regulation must also be situated in
the context of adolescent identity formation and personality
(Nigg, 2017; Sussman & Arnett, 2014). The construction
of self and identity was discussed in Chapter 12. There, we
noted that adolescent identity formation and consolidation
lead to an integrated sense of self, including constructs such
as sex and gender, race and ethnicity, values and goals,
and domains of competence. This process can serve as a
powerful source of resilience, but it may also be associated
with new sources of risk.
Two theories provide additional perspective on identity,
identity pathology, and identity disorder (Kaufman &
Crowell, 2018). Biosocial theories focus on the biological
and physiological processes that influence identity,
including brain structures and functions related to
emotion regulation/dysregulation, the processing of selfrelevant information, and cognitive and behavioral control.
Contextual-behavioral theories focus on the relationships
and environments in which individuals are embedded.
Both theories strive to answer important questions: Do
individuals experience and display consistent, stable,
coherent patterns over time? What peer factors and wider
cultural processes influence individual identity? Answers
to these questions help us understand the complexity of
different typical and atypical identity pathways (Kaufman
& Crowell, 2018).
In addition to identity pathways, personality pathways
provide meaningful information about adaptation and
maladaptation. Theory and research on personality in
youth, for example, reveal important similarities as well
as some key differences in comparison to personality in
adults (Soto, 2016; Soto & Tackett, 2015). One important
comparison involves the number of dimensions that
comprise personality. In adults, the Big Five model includes
extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional
stability, and openness to experience. In youth, the Little
Six include extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, openness to experience, plus activity.
The Little Six dimensions are a bridge between the
temperament traits observed early in development and
later adult personality characteristics (refer back to
Chapter 5). In childhood, the temperament/personality
characteristic of activity involves physical energy and
motor activity. By adolescence, these aspects of activity
Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Developmental Tasks and Challenges Related to Brain Development, Self-Regulation, and Personality 257
Sensation-seeking composite*100Self-regulation composite*100
20
Age
Figure 14.2 Sensation Seeking vs. Self-Regulation: Age trends across adolescence
andyoungadulthood
Age differences in scores for sensation seeking and self-regulation. Grey shading indicates a plateau/peak. Dashed
lines depict 95% confidence bands.
15
10
5
0
–5
–10
–15
–20
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Age
55
45
35
25
Source: Steinberg et al. (2018). Around the world, adolescence is a time of heightened sensation seeking and immature self-regulation.
decrease, and activity expands to include motivation and
competitive drive. By late adolescence, the importance of
physical and motor activity further decreases (Soto, 2016;
Soto & Tackett, 2015).
Measures of personality in youth display both stability and
change (Soto & Tackett, 2015). According to the cumulative-
continuity principle, measures of personality dimensions
provide evidence that individuals maintain rank order over
time. For example, youth with high levels of extraversion or
conscientiousness at time 1 continue to display high levels
of extraversion or conscientiousness at time 2. According
to the maturity principle, most individuals become more
agreeable, conscientious, and emotionally stable as they get
older. Although there is evidence to suggest that youth do
display increasing maturity over time, there is also evidence
that suggests that maturity is not an incremental positive
15
5
0
–5
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
trajectory. Instead, research supports the disruption hypothesis.
The disruption hypothesis states that biopsychosocial
transitions across childhood and adolescence are associated
with “temporary dips in some aspects of personality
maturity” (such as conscientiousness or agreeableness), with
later-occurring increases and consolidation in personality
dimensions that reflect maturity (Soto & Tackett, 2015,
p. 360; refer to Figure 14.3).
It is important to keep in mind the distinction between
personality characteristics and skills (Soto et al., 2021).
Personality is what an individual tends to do. It is focused
on predispositions related to patterns of thinking,
feeling, and behaving. Skills are what an individual is
capable of doing. Across development, the number and
variety of skills increase. Skills include social-engagement
skills (used to engage with others), cooperation skills
Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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258 Chapter 14 Substance-Related Disorders, Personality Disorders, and PsychoticDisorders
Mean T scoreMean T score
Female Male Female Male Female Male
18
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 14.3 Mean levels of the Little Six by age and sex/gender
Conscientiousness
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
42
(d)
60
58
56
54
52
50
789
345
6
Female Male Female Male Female Male
11
10
12
Age
Extraversion
1314151617
18
(e)
Mean T score
Mean T score
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
42
58
56
54
52
50
48
34567
Agreeableness
9
8
11
10
12
Age
Activity
1314151617
Openness to experience
58
56
54
52
50
48
Mean T score
46
44
42
18
3456789
(f)
58
56
54
52
50
Mean T score
48
11
10
12
Age
Neuroticism
1314151617
48
46
44
3
4
567
8
9
11
10
Source: Soto (2016). The Little Six personality dimensions from early childhood to early adulthood: Mean-level age and gender differences in parents’ reports.
Age
14
17
18
15
16
12
13
(used to maintain positive social relationships), selfmanagement skills (used to pursue goals and complete
tasks), emotional-resilience skills (used to regulate
emotions and mood), and innovation skills (used to
engage with new ideas and experiences). An example
of the distinction between personality and skills might
be the introverted adolescent who loudly intervenes to
support a student being bullied in the school hallway. The
introverted adolescent might prefer to go quietly from one
class to another but has the necessary skills to empathize
with a peer and de-escalate a conflict.
As adolescents navigate multiple developmental tasks
and challenges, many display resilience. Structural brain
correlates of adolescent resilience have been noted, with
46
44
42
3
456
7
8
9
11
10
14
12
151617
Age
13
18
increased grey matter volume in right prefrontal structures
(involved with regulatory processes) associated with better
functioning in youth with histories of adversity (Burt et al.,
2016). The presence of a prospective self, a construct including
future-oriented attitudes and behaviors, contributes to
adaptation and resilience (Zinn et al., 2020). Additional
protective factors that improve outcomes involve a positive
racial/ethnic identity, relationships with adults, and prosocial
involvement (Luthar et al., 2021; Zimmerman et al., 2013).
A cross-cultural investigation of adolescent well-being
in 14 countries identified individual skills, educational
goals, peer support, and community support as protective
factors. Caregiver support was the most important factor for
adolescent resilience (Höltge et al., 2021).
46
44
42
3
456
789
11
10
Age
12
1314151617
18
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders 259
Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
The Case of James
James is a 15-year-old high school sophomore in the largest
town in a rural area. James moved to this community as
a ninth grader when his father started a new job. He was
an average student through junior high school, although
his impulsivity and sporadic oppositional behavior created
conflict with his teachers. James left behind a large network
of friends and family when he moved, and he found
himself somewhat isolated in his new school. There were
fewer peers who appreciated his quirky sense of humor and
fewer opportunities to share his appetite for ethnic foods
and music. Toward the end of ninth grade, James began
working at a local movie theater and met several boys who
were about to graduate from high school. Over the summer,
he hung out with these friends after work and drank beer
with them. When school started in the fall, James quit his
job but continued to get together with these friends for
parties that included drinking and, occasionally, other drug
use. Although he did not try these other drugs, which he
viewed as dangerous, he did drink heavily. During the first
semester of school, James slept through several morning
classes and two exams after late-night parties.
Although they were uncomfortable that James was
spending time with these older teens and concerned by his
poor school performance, James’s parents hesitated to limit
his contact because these seemed to be the only friends he
had. When they first suspected that James was drinking
with this group, James’s mother was quite upset, but his
father saw the behavior as “normal teenage stuff.” However,
when they began to notice liquor missing from their home,
they agreed that James’s drinking was a problem. They
told James that he could not get his driver’s license until he
agreed to see a counselor and stop drinking.
The Case of Luna
Luna is an 18-year-old senior attending an alternative
high school for students who have struggled in traditional
school environments. She began high school at a large, very
competitive suburban high school. Both of her parents
are successful professionals; her older brother was class
valedictorian and currently attends a prestigious university.
Luna was a bright and engaging child and also very strongwilled and stubborn. She began smoking cigarettes with her
friends in seventh grade and was caught drinking with these
same friends several times in eighth grade. Upset by these
discoveries and Luna’s insistence that nothing was wrong,
Luna’s parents sought mental health counseling several
times (with individual sessions for Luna as well as family
sessions), but a pattern emerged in which either Luna or her
parents came to view the therapists as either unhelpful or
incompetent. Multiple therapies were ended without much
positive change.
By the time Luna started high school, she was smoking
marijuana as well as drinking. By the end of ninth grade,
however, many of her friends decreased their drug use as
they became more involved in academics and cocurricular
activities. Luna’s drug use, in contrast, increased in both
severity and variety. Although unaware of her escalating
drug use, Luna’s parents became increasingly concerned
as her grades dropped and the school administrator
contacted them about repeated truancy.
Luna was skipping school and driving to the apartment
of friends who attended a local college. In addition to
alcohol and marijuana, Luna was beginning to experiment
with synthetic psychoactive drugs such as Ecstasy and
prescription narcotics such as Oxycontin. Midway through
her junior year, she was failing almost all her classes and her
health was deteriorating. With the combined insistence of
her parents and a therapist, Luna again began—but never
completed—several outpatient drug treatments. Typically,
she would initially cooperate, but she found staying sober
physically and psychologically intolerable; she would quickly
fall back into a pattern of drug and alcohol use. Late one
night, returning from a dance club, Luna was driving
erratically and had a minor accident. She had been drinking
before going to the club and had later taken Ecstasy. The
police were called. In addition to determining that she was
driving while intoxicated, they found other drugs in her car
and filed further charges. Luna agreed to enter an inpatient
drug treatment program for adolescents. She started at the
alternative high school when she was discharged. She likes
the school, attends regularly, and feels understood and
supported by the staff. Luna is actively attempting to avoid
another relapse, but she acknowledges that it is extremely
difficult because she still feels that “the only time I am really
happy and alive is when I’m high.”
The cases of James and Luna illustrate just two of the
many clinical presentations of adolescent substance abuse and
dependency that depend on definitions of use, abuse,tolerance,
dependence, and addiction. Use is defined as the ingestion of
a substance. Experimental substance use involves trying a drug
once or a few times, often related to curiosity or peer influence.
Social substance use occurs during social events with one or
more peers. Parties, concerts, dances, and athletic events
are common settings for this type of use. Abuse is defined
as excessive use of or dependence on an addictive substance.
Individual differences in theprogression from use to abuse are
noteworthy, with some adolescents transitioning slowly, others
rapidly, and still others not at all.
Tolerance occurs when the central nervous system
(CNS) gradually becomes less responsive to stimulation
by particular drugs. Individuals then need to ingest higher
and higher doses to achieve the same CNS effects. Physical
dependence involves susceptibility to withdrawal symptoms;
it occurs only in combination with tolerance. Withdrawal
symptoms are noxious physical and psychological effects
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

260 Chapter 14 Substance-Related Disorders, Personality Disorders, and PsychoticDisorders
U.S. Students Reporting Any Past-Year Illicit Drug Use
100 %
2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021
11.7%
caused by the reduction or cessation of substance intake (e.g.,
sleep disturbances, headaches, nausea and vomiting, tremors,
restlessness, anxiety, and depression); these symptoms can
range from relatively mild to life-threatening. Psychological
dependence involves a craving or compulsion to use despite
the likelihood of significant negative consequences, and
it is not always accompanied by withdrawal symptoms.
Distinctions between abuse and dependence are often tied
to specific substances and their CNS effects. Impairment
provides another key diagnostic criterion, with the presence
of immediate negative consequences (missed classes or work,
failed relationships). Addiction is defined as a chronic
disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and
abuse, physiological effects, loss of control over the urges to
use drugs, and impairment.
DSM-5-TR describes many categories of substance use and
addictive disorders. They include alcohol-related disorders,
cannabis-related disorders, hallucinogen-related disorders,
inhalant-related disorders, opioid-related disorders, stimulantrelated disorders, and tobacco-related disorders. Depending
on the specific substance, there are subtypes related to use,
intoxication, and withdrawal. Gambling disorder is another
category in this group of disorders. Additional research is
recommended for the provisional category of Internet use
disorder.
There are multiple ongoing surveys of adolescent alcohol
and drug use in the United States. The National Institute
on Drug Abuse (NIDA; www.nida.nih.gov) and the
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
(SAMHSA; www.samhsa.gov) provide ongoing data on the
prevalence of drug use. Prevalence trends for illicit drug use
over a 10-year period (2011–2021) show relatively stable and/
or declining overall rates for 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students
(NIDA, 2022; refer to Figure 14.4). These trends are similar
to those observed in European countries as well as those in
many low- and middle-income countries in varied regions of
the world (Kraus et al., 2018; Leung etal., 2019).
Adolescent boys are more likely to use almost every
substance compared to adolescent girls and to use those
Multiple risk factors contribute to substance use and abuse in
adolescence.
Figure 14.4 Illicit drug use among youth
between 2011 and 2021
80%
60%
12th Grade
40%
10th Grade
20%
8th Grade
Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse. https://nida.nih.gov/research
-topics/trends-statistics/infographics/monitoring-future-2021-survey-results
substances more frequently (Leung et al., 2019; Schulenberg
et al., 2014). This sex/gender difference is less noticeable
in the early years of high school and increases over time.
Younger adolescents from low socioeconomic status (SES)
backgrounds use most substances more often than younger
adolescents from higher-SES backgrounds. By the end of high
school, however, higher-SES youth catch up and exceed their
peers in alcohol use (Schulenberg et al., 2014). Higher rates
of substance use are observed in sexual and gender minority
youth (Eisenberg et al., 2022; Fish et al., 2021).
Rates of heavy drinking vary by age: less than 1% for
youth between 12 and 15, 2.7% for youth between 16
and 17, 8.5% for youth between 18 and 19, and 13.1% for
young adults between 20 and 25. Rates of binge drinking
also vary: less than 1% for youth between 12 and 13, 4.5%
for youth between 14 and 15, 13.1% for youth between 16
and 17, 29.1% for youth between 18 and 19, and 43% for
young adults between 20 and 25. Rates of heavy drinking
are similar for adolescent boys and girls. Binge drinking is
more common in adolescent boys. Frequent use of alcohol is
associated with the use of other drugs (SAMHSA, 2014). The
transition to young adulthood does not signal a lessening of
alcohol misuse. Drinking in college students, for example,
is widespread and problematic. Numerous public safety and
college initiatives focus on decreasing consumption and
preventing some of the most tragic personal and interpersonal
consequences of alcohol abuse by college students.
In contrast to rates of alcohol use, marijuana use has
increased (Keyes et al., 2022; National Institute of Drug
Abuse, 2022). More adolescents report high-frequency
marijuana use (compared to alcohol or tobacco), with more
noticeable increases in use for males and minority youth
(Terry-McElrath et al., 2020). With legalization in more
states, rates are likely to continue to rise. The active chemical
iStock.com/KatarzynaBialasiewicz
in marijuana is delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol (THC), and
the amount of THC in marijuana has risen dramatically
4.8%
2020–2021
2020–2021
5.4%
2020–2021
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over recent decades. THC attaches to cannabinoid receptors
in many brain areas. Its use is associated with both shortand long-term physical impairments. E-cigarette use is also
th
increasing, with almost 30% of 8
graders reporting that
they had used e-cigarettes. The highest rates are observed
for White males. The use of e-cigarettes is also associated
with the use of other substances (Westerling et al., 2017;
Wong & Fan, 2018).
There are a number of other commonly used
illicit substances that may lead to a diagnosis of a
substance use disorder. These include inhalants,
cocaine, methamphetamine, hallucinogens, heroin, and
prescription drugs. Inhalant use peaks between seventh
and ninth grades, with sustained use more frequent in
boys. Indeed, the most serious inhalant abuse is exhibited
by children and adolescents who have little access to
alcohol or other drugs. Cocaine is a powerfully addictive
drug; tolerance and craving are frequently observed. Single
or repeated use may result in cardiovascular, respiratory,
and neurological complications. Methamphetamine is
a potent stimulant drug that has become increasingly
widespread and extraordinarily problematic. It has
a similar drug structure to amphetamines but more
dramatic and more toxic effects on the central nervous
system. Dissociative drugs such as phencyclidine (PCP)
affect the neurotransmitters glutamate and dopamine,
also with unpredictable effects. With characteristics
and effects overlapping stimulant and psychedelic
drugs, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA
or Ecstasy) is another abused substance, often used in
combination with alcohol or marijuana. Its use i s associated
with increases in feelings of well-being, increases in
emotional and sensory perception, and decreases in
anxiety. Ecstasy’s effects occur via neurotransmitter
systems, with immediate life-threatening consequences
for some individuals and long-term complications for
others (such as damage to serotonin-containing neurons).
iStock.com/AleksandrYu
Vaping is increasing across adolescence and is associated
with the use of other substances.
Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders 261
iStock.com/fstop123
Prescription drugs, relatively easy to obtain, are increasingly
abused by adolescents.
Heroin is another highly addictive substance; it is the
most rapidly acting and among the most abused of the
opiate class of drugs.
Prescription drugs are also abused by adolescents. Increased
initiation rates for nonmedical use of prescription drugs are
second only to initiation rates for marijuana (SAMHSA,
2014). The most commonly abused prescription drugs are
pain medications such as Oxycodone, medications that
depress the central nervous system, such as those prescribed
for anxiety and sleep disorders, and stimulants, such as
those prescribed for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). Approximately 5% to 10% of high school seniors
used prescription drugs for nonmedical reasons in 2011
(SAMHSA, 2014).
As noted, youth who use one substance often use others
(e.g., alcohol 1 marijuana or alcohol 1 prescription drugs).
Patterns vary by race/ethnicity and sex/gender (Banks
et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2022; Zukermann et al., 2020).
Substance use disorders also frequently co-occur with
other psychological disorders. Externalizing disorders,
depression, and histories of maltreatment are common
in both adolescent boys and girls. Anxiety disorders and
suicidality are more frequent in girls, with current research
emphasizing especially vulnerable groups of adolescents
at risk for multiple psychopathologies (Schulenberg et al.,
2014). Histories of both internalizing and externalizing
disorders are observed for sexual and gender minority youth
with substance use problems (Eisenberg et al., 2022; Fish
etal., 2021). Comorbidity and overlap of substance use and
behavioral addictions is also common (Kotyuk et al., 2020;
Vidal & Meshi, 2022).
Behavioral addictive disorders include problematic
gambling, gaming, and internet use. Similar to the clinical
presentation of substance use disorder, behavioral addictions
involve the loss of behavioral control (Vidal & Meshi,
2022). With increases in everyday internet use, gaming, and
gambling by youth, the identification of problematic internet
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

262 Chapter 14 Substance-Related Disorders, Personality Disorders, and PsychoticDisorders
use, gaming, and gambling in youth is complicated but
necessary (Simmons et al., 2016). Using almost any definition,
problematic internet use, gaming, and gambling has increased
dramatically. Gaming and gambling is much more prevalent
in boys. Problematic internet use, gaming, and gambling
are each associated with other psychosocial difficulties and
impairment (Kuss & Gainsbury, 2021; Restrepo et al., 2020).
Developmental Course
Substance-related disorders rarely resolve on their own
(Schulenberg et al., 2014). It is necessary, then, to understand
the developmental context of use and abuse: How and why
do adolescents begin to use drugs, and what factors underlie
continued use? There are multiple distinct trajectories for
alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco, including early-onset,
rapid-onset, and escalating pathways that increase the risk
for poor adolescent and adult outcomes (Nelson et al., 2015).
There are also trajectories in which individuals who initiate
substance use do not escalate and use at low or moderate
levels for decades (Rose et al., 2019).
With respect to initial use, there are two periods
of highest vulnerability: during early adolescence and
during the transition to young adulthood. Early users
are at higher risk for poor outcomes. Substance use in
early adolescence often involves a number of immediate
negative consequences, including academic struggles,
social problems, and the less successful resolution of typical
developmental challenges related to self and identity.
Early substance use also predicts substance abuse in later
adolescence and adulthood as well as a range of negative
personal and social long-term outcomes. Substance abuse
is also associated with suicidality, with increases in risk
observed in both clinical and community samples of
adolescents (Schulenberg et al., 2014).
The transition to adulthood, between the ages of 18 and
25, is a period marked by uncertainty, multiple life decisions,
and a high degree of instability (Sussman & Arnett, 2014).
Beyond these developmental stage characteristics, there are
a number of factors that specifically increase the risk for the
emergence of problematic substance use. Drugs are readily
accessible, and involvement in risky behavior is tolerated (or
encouraged or rewarded). Reinforcing events such as drug
use, or drug use with friends, are experienced as especially
pleasurable (Sussman & Arnett, 2014). For individuals
making this transition who have other risk factors associated
with substance-related disorders, additional concern is
warranted.
For pathways involving alcohol, the general trend
involves a gradual increase in use throughout adolescence,
a peak in early adulthood, and then a decrease (Brown
etal., 2011; Schulenberg et al., 2014). Focusing on the years
of adolescence, however, provides a somewhat different
perspective. Trajectory groups include abstainers/light
drinkers (with stable low use or nonuse); stable moderate
drinkers (with stable moderate use and limited heavy use);
binge drinkers (with time-limited periods of heavy use);
decreasers (early onset, but declining use); chronic heavy
drinkers (early onset and stable heavy drinking); and late-
onset heavy drinkers (late onset, rapid escalation, heavy use)
(Brown et al., 2011).
The immediate, short-term, and long-term effects of
drinking depend, in part, on age and developmental status
(Brown et al., 2011). Early drinking results in a variety of
negative consequences. Age at first use is the key variable.
Early drinking is also associated with higher rates of binge
drinking, risky sexual activity, aggression and violence,
and poor adult outcomes. Early onset alcohol abuse is also
associated with suicidality. Hypotheses focused on increased
risk suggest links among impulsivity, disinhibition, and
comorbid psychopathology, especially mood disorders (Rose
et al., 2019).
Important differences in alcohol use emerge in middle
school and become more distinct in high school. Frequent
and heavy drinking that continues through adolescence is
accompanied by increasingly serious problems, including
poor academic functioning, family and peer difficulties,
and various problematic behaviors (Lee et al., 2022).
Frequent and heavy drinking is also linked to damage in
alcohol-susceptible brain regions (Brown et al., 2011).
Solitary drinking is particularly important to note, as it
is unusual and predicts continued drinking problems in
adulthood (Creswell et al., 2014). Transitional life events
(e.g., changes in education setting or employment) may
provide opportunities for some adolescents to grow out of
alcohol use and abuse (Patrick et al., 2020).
For pathways involving marijuana, three adolescent
trajectories of nonescalating use have been identified:
low users, medium users, and high users. One trajectory of
escalating use has been described: escalating users. A mix
of distinctive risk and protective factors are associated with
each trajectory (Hill et al., 2017; Passarotti et al., 2015).
Descriptions of trajectories that extend into adulthood
differ somewhat. They include nonusers (27%), an
adolescence-limited pathway (21%), a late-onset pathway
(20%), and a chronic pathway (32%). Chronic trajectories
were associated with the worst outcomes in terms of
mental health outcomes, economic outcomes, and overall
functioning (Epstein et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2022). Pathways
involving both tobacco and cannabis are common, with
multiple possible trajectories, from non-use, decreasing use
over adolescence, increasing use, and chronic use (Lanza
et al., 2021).
Pathways involving behavioral addictive disorders
are similar to those observed for substance use disorders.
Common onset periods are in adolescence and early
adulthood. Onset is frequently linked to decreases in healthy
behaviors between early adolescence and early adulthood
and increases in risk-taking behaviors. Internalizing and
externalizing disorders increase risk. Behavioral addictions
are often chronic, with patterns of recovery and relapse
(Richard et al., 2022; Vidal & Meshi, 2022).
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Etiology 263
The Gateway Hypothesis, Common
Liability to Addiction Model, and
Developmental Cascade Models
The gateway hypothesis is an inclusive stage theory of
drug involvement that proposes that the use of alcohol or
marijuana acts as a gateway to the use of harder drugs, such
as cocaine, heroin, or methamphetamines (Kandel, 2002;
Kandel & Yamaguchi, 2002). Additional data suggest that
nicotine may also be a gateway drug that leads to marijuana
use (Kandel & Kandel, 2015).
There are alternatives to the gateway hypothesis. The
common liability to addiction model assumes that there
is a nonspecific propensity to use drugs. This propensity is
correlated with both opportunities to use various drugs and
the actual use of drugs given an opportunity (Vanyukov
et al., 2012). Shared individual and social factors, then,
contribute to the use and abuse of multiple substances. More
complex explanations suggest that shared factors (such as
social norms) increase an adolescent’s overall risk to use any
drug, and personality factors influence decisions about use of
particular drugs. The pharmacological effects of particular
drugs (such as marijuana) may then lead an adolescent to
use other drugs. Current theoretical and empirical research
lends considerable support to the common liability model
(Vanyukov et al., 2012).
Developmental cascade models of substance use and
abuse have also been described. In a dynamic cascade
model of the initiation of substance use, various indices of
problematic functioning at particular points in time predict
later problematic functioning (Otten et al., 2018; Rose etal.,
2019). The indices include biological factors, parenting
factors, peer factors, and environmental factors. Findings
related to this model include multiple small effects of various
factors, the importance of early development, continuity over
time, ongoing transactions among domains of functioning,
and opportunities for change at various time points in various
domains. One model is focused on early childhood stressors
combined with problematic parenting that leads first to selfregulation difficulties, then to distress and dysfunction in later
childhood, and then to early adolescent substance use (Otten
et al., 2018; refer to Figure 14.5). Another developmental
cascade model of substance use is focused on incentive
motivation (Luciana, 2013). In this model, adolescents who
are not monitored and who engage in substance use may
experience a cascade in which brain and behavior processes
are “derailed, overly taxing the developing prefrontal system,
and leading to allostatic changes that are detrimental...to
future neurobehavioral organization and function” (p. 1338).
Other cascade models of substance use and abuse
highlight individual and interpersonal risk factors that
influence high-risk trajectories, specific experiences
such as maltreatment that lead to internalizing and/or
externalizing disorders that increase the risk for substance
abuse, and the ways in which changes in school, family,
and/or work roles may precipitate changes in substance
use during the transition to adulthood. Internalizing
and externalizing pathways to substance use have been
examined in multiple cultural groups, with evidence that
externalizing behaviors at age 10 predict later substance
use. Behavioral inhibition plus depressive symptoms
between ages 8 and 12 also predict later substance use.
Combined internalizing and externalizing symptoms
at age 10 also predict later substance use. Cultures
with greater opportunities for substance use in early
adolescence had higher rates of frequent use in later
adolescence (Rothenberg et al., 2020).
Etiology
Models of etiology need to explain initial experimentation
and substance use, substance abuse, and substance
addiction, with various factors coming into play at different
points along the trajectory of use. For most adolescents,
combinations of risk factors (such as maturational factors,
emotional and cognitive development, and family, peer,
and social variables) lead to disorder. For others, a single
risk may be enough to set psychopathology in motion (Rose
et al., 2019; Schulenberg et al., 2014).
Genes and Heredity
Genetic contributions to substance abuse disorders must be
understood in the context of clear environmental impact.
Figure 14.5 A developmental cascade model for the emergence of substance use
Early stressful
life events
Childhood
inhibitory
Negative
parent/child
interaction
Source: Otten et al. (2018). A developmental cascade model for early adolescent-onset substance abuse: The role of early childhood stress. Used with
permission of John Wiley & Sons ©2019 permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
control
Late
childhood
deviance
Early
adolescent
substance
use
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