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Файл:Практическая фонетика первого иностранного языка. Шаг за шагом. Учебно-методическое пособие для студентов первого, второго курсов
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Pointing to extensive variations in the taxonomy of English tones, Cruttenden (1986:58)
rightly notes that 'This is an area where almost every analyst varies in his judgement of what
constitutes a 'major difference of meaning' and hence in the number of nuclear tones which are
set up.' He adds: '...intonational meanings are often so intangible and nebulous ... (that) it is
difficult to see how a wholly convincing case for any one set of nuclear tones.' (parenthetical
statement is mine). Crystal (1969) and Ladefoged (1982) identify four basic tones (fall, rise-fall,
rise, and fail-rise) while O'Connor and Arnold (1973) distinguish only two (rise and fall). Brazil
et al. (1980) and Roach (1983) endorse five tones (fall, rise, rise-fall, fall-rise, and level) whereas
Cruttenden (1986) recognizes seven tones (high-fall, low-fall, high-rise, low-rise, fail-rise, risefall, and mid-level).
It appeared in the author's teaching experience that only four types of tones can be
efficiently taught to non-native speakers of English:
fall
low-rise
high-rise
fall-rise
What makes a tone a rising or falling or any other type of tone is the direction of the pitch
movement on the last stressed (tonic) syllable (Brown, 1977:45). If the tonic syllable is in nonfinal position, the glide continues over the rest of the syllables. A fall in pitch on the tonic
syllable renders the tone as 'fall'. A 'rise' tone is one in which the tonic syllable is the start of an
upward glide of pitch. This glide is of two kinds; if the upward movement is higher, then it is
'high rise'; if it is lower, then it is 'low rise'. 'Fall-rise' has first a pitch fall and then a rise.
Fall (A Falling Tone)
A falling tone is by far the most common used tone of all. It signals a sense of finality,
completion, belief in the content of the utterance, and so on. A speaker, by choosing a falling
tone, also indicates to the addressee that that is all he has to say, and offers a chance (turn-taking)
to the addressee to comment on, agree or disagree with, or add to his utterance. However, it is up
to the addressee to do either of these. This tone does in no way solicit a response from the
addressee. Nonetheless, it would be polite for the addressee to at least acknowledge in some
manner or form that he is part of the discourse. Now, let us see the areas in which a failing tone
is used. The following is a proclamation in which a teacher is informing a student of the
consequences of his unacceptable behavior.
I'll report you to the HEADmaster
A falling tone may be used in referring expressions as well.
I've spoken with the CLEAner.
Questions that begin with wh-questions are generally pronounced with a falling tone:
Where is the PENcil?
Imperative statements have a falling tone.
Go and see a DOCtor.
Take a SEAT.
Requests or orders have a falling tone too.
Please sit DOWN
Call him IN.
Exclamations:
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Watch OUT!
Yes/No questions and tag questions seeking or expecting confirmation can be uttered with
a falling tone. And the response to it may be lengthened. Consider the following example:
-You like it, DON'T you?
+ YEES.
In a Yes/No question structure, if the speaker uses a falling tone, we assume that he
already knows the answer, or at least he is sure that he knows, and the purpose of asking the
question, as far as the speaker is concerned, is to put the answer on record. In the following
exchange, the speaker is sure to get a 'Yes' answer from the addressee:
-Have you MET him?
+YES.
Low Rise (A Rising Tone)
This tone is used in genuine 'Yes/No' questions where the speaker is sure that he does not
know the answer, and that the addressee knows the answer. Such Yes/No questions are uttered
with a rising tone. For instance, consider the following question uttered with a rising tone, the
answer of which could be either of the three options:
A) Isn't he NICE
B) Yes.
No.
I don't know.
Compare the above example with the following example, which is uttered with a falling
tone, and which can only have one appropriate answer in the context:
Isn't he NICE
YES.
Other examples which are uttered with a rising tone are:
Do you want some COFfee?
Do you take CREAM in your coffee?
High Rise (A Rising Tone)
If the tonic stress is uttered with extra pitch height, as in the following intonation units,
we may think that the speaker is asking for a repetition or clarification, or indicating disbelief.
a) I'm taking up TAxidermy this autumn.
b) Taking up WHAT? (clarification)
a) She passed her DRIving test.
b) She PASSED? (disbelief)
Fall Rise (followed by Fall)
While the three tones explicated so far can be used in independent, single intonation
units, the fourth tone, fail-rise, appears to be generally used in what may be called 'dependent'
intonation units such as those involving sentential adverbs, subordinate clauses, compound
sentences, and so on. Fall-rise signals dependency, continuity, and non-finality (Cruttenden,
1986:102). It generally occurs in sentence non-final intonation units. Consider the following in
which the former of the intonation units are uttered with a fall-rise tone (the slash indicates a
pause): Private enterPRISE / is always EFficient.
A quick tour of the CIty / would be NICE.
PreSUmably / he thinks he CAN.
Usually / he comes on SUNday.
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One of the most frequent complex clause types in English is one that has dependent
(adverbial or subordinate) clause followed by an independent (main) clause. When such a clause
has two intonation units, the first, non-final, normally has a fall-rise while the second, final, has
falling tone. Therefore, the tone observed in non-final intonation units can be said to have a
'dependency' tone, which is fall-rise (The explication of tone patterns as well as some of the
examples in this section are largely based on Cruttenden, 1986). Consider the following:
When I passed my REAding test / I was VEry happy.
If you SEE him / give my MESsage.
When the order of complex clause is reversed, we may still observe the pattern fall-rise
and fall respectively, as in
I WON'T deliver the goods / unless I receive the PAYment.
The moon revolves around the EARTH / as we ALLknow.
Private enterprise is always EFficient / whereas public ownership means INefficient.
All in all, final intonation units have a falling tone while non-final ones have fall-rise.
Consider further complex clauses:
He joined the ARmy / and spent all his time in ALdershot.
My sister who is a NURSE / has ONE child.
This section has reviewed the (fall-rise + fall) and (fall + fall-rise) patterns. In the
following two sections, two patterns, namely (fall-rise + low rise) and (fall + fall), are examined
respectively.
Fall-rise + Low Rise
Typically this tone pattern involves a dependent clause followed by a Yes/No question.
If I HELPED you / would you try aGAIN?
Despite its DRAWbacks / do you favor it or NOT?
Fall + Fall
A fall tone can be followed by another fall tone when the speaker expects or demands
agreement as in tag questions.
It's a bit TOO good to be true / ISN'T it?
Reinforcing adverbials can also have a fall when place utterance finally as an expression
of after-thought.
Ann said she'd help as much as she COULD / NATUrally.
If the two actions are part of a sequence of related events, it has (fall + fall) tone pattern,
as in the following in which the information in the first intonation unit and the one in the second
one do not have dependency: She's 28 years OLD / and lives in GiPPSland
IX. Tasks for individual training
Task 1
1) Try speaking this sentence aloud.
They can't come on Friday.
So, when we use the positive form of "can" we quickly glide over the can and it is hardly
pronounced: They can come on Friday (stressed words underlined)
On the other hand, when we use the negative form "can't" we tend to stress the fact that it
is the negative form by also stressing "can't".: They can't come on Friday .
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As you can see from the sentence above, "They can't come on Friday" is longer than
"They can come on Friday" because both the modal "can't" and the verb "come" in the second
sentence are stressed.
Task 2
1) Read the following sentences aloud:
The beautiful Mountain appeared transfixed in the distance.
He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the evening.
2) Count how many seconds they take.
Task 3
1) You need to be able to immediately distinguish between content and function words.
Write down 'C' for content and 'F' for function.
Example: magazine (C) many (F)
Went, with, just, quickly, the, hard, next to, CD ROM, open, had
2) Next, take a look at the sentences and underline the words that should be stressed.
Example: Jack went to the shop to grab some coke.
He had finished breakfast before I arrived.
Phillip ordered a huge steak for dinner.
They will have to stay up late if they are going to finish their homework.
It must have been something in the air that caused Jack to shout.
Could you please be quieter?
Task 4
1) Mark the stressed words in the following sentences. After you have found the stressed words,
practice reading the sentences aloud.
John is coming over tonight. We are going to work on our homework together.
Ecstasy is an extremely dangerous drug.
We should have visited some more castles while we were traveling through the back roads of
France.
Jack bought a new car last Friday.
They are looking forward to your visiting them next January.
Exciting discoveries lie in Tom's future.
Would you like to come over and play a game of chess?
They have had to work hard these last few months on their challenging experiment.
Shakespeare wrote passionate, moving poetry.
As you might have expected, he has just thought of a new approach to the problem
Task 5
1) Write down a few sentences, or take a few example sentences from a book or exercise. First
underline the stressed words, then read aloud focusing on stressing the underlined words and
gliding over the non-stressed words.
Task 6
1) When listening to native speakers, focus on how those speakers stress certain words and
begin to copy this.
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KEYS
Reading aloud from transcription
International communication nowadays is considerably easier than it used to be. It's a result of
satellite telecommunication and the widespread use of the Internet
Stressing important words in a sentence
Education and technology / are the CORNERSTONES / of Hong Kong's future development /
and they are PRECISELY / HKUST's mission.
Using stress and intonation
many hong kong children suffering from ASTHMA (↗) were unable to attend SCHOOL recently
(↗) on account of the UNHEALTHY air quality (↘) officials had advised those suffering from
HEART or BREATHING problems (↗)to stay INDOORS (↗)until the AIR QUALITY
IMPROVED (↘)
KEY
Our school is the BEST in town. The teachers are friendly, and VERY
KNOWLEDGEABLE about English. I've studied at the school for two years and my English is
becoming VERY GOOD. I hope you will visit our school and try an English class. MAYBE we
can become FRIENDS!
KEY
In this day and age, facts, statistics and other numbers are used to prove EVERYTHING.
Intuition, gut feelings and personal preferences are all OUT THE DOOR. Of course, there ARE
some who are trying to battle this trend. Recently, Malcolm Gladwell wrote BLINK, a best-seller
which explores the USEFULNESS of making SPLIT-SECOND DECISIONS based on
INTUITION rather than careful consideration of all the facts and figures.
In his book, Gladwell argues that INITIAL IMPRESSIONS - or GUT-FEELINGS - are
quite rational. However, that this "split-second" thinking process moves FASTER than what we
usually associate with thinking. If YOU are one of these people - and there are MANY of us Blink provides "PROOF" that you're actually quite a RATIONAL HUMAN BEING
65
Glossary to Pronunciation Terms and Terminology
Accomodation (or adaptation) - is the modification in the articulation of a vowel under
the influence of an adjacent sound, or, vice versa, the modification in the articulation of a
consonant under the influence of an adjacent vowel.
Affricate - a consonant, which is made up of two or more basic sounds - a stop followed
by a fricative. The words chin and gin begin with affricates.
Allophone – different variations on a phoneme
Alternative questions - are those in which there is a choice of two or more alternatives.
Alveolar - tip or blade of tongue against the gum just behind the upper teeth
Alveolar consonants – [t], [d], [l], [n], [s], [z]
Aspiration is the phonetic phenomenon in which such consonants as [p], [t], [k] are followed by
a short voiceless puff of breath, To practice aspiration try to pronounce sound [h] after initial [p],
[t], [k].
Assimilation - the process in which the articulation of one phoneme influences the
articulation of a neighbouring phoneme making it similar or even identical to itself.
Assimilating phoneme - is the phoneme that influences the articulation of a neighbouring
phoneme.
Assimilated phoneme - is the phoneme, which is under the influence of a neighbouring
phoneme.
Assimilation, complete - when the articulation of the assimilated phoneme fully coincides with
the assimilating one: e.g. horse-shoe [hLSu:];does she [ dAS SI]
Assimilation, partial – if the assimilated phoneme still has some of its main phonemic
features: e.g. twins, place, cry, on the ;
Assimilation, intermediate - when the assimilated consonant phoneme changes into a different
phoneme which does not coincide with the assimilating one: e.g. goose + berry = gooseberry;
news + paper = newspaper.
Assimilation, progressive - when the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the preceding
phoneme: e.g. crime, speak;
Assimilation, regressive – if the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the consonant
following it: e.g. Is this the way?
Assimilation, reciprocal , or double - when the phonemes influence each other:
e.g. a quiet twilight.
Articulate - pronounce, say, speak clearly and distinctly.
Back vowel - a vowel, which is pronounced with the back part of the tongue higher than
the rest of the tongue.
Вilabial consonant are pronounced with lips pressed together
Checked vowels - are vowels those, which are pronounced without any lessening the force
of utterance towards their end.
Clear L - used before vowels and j
Close vowel - a vowel, which is pronounced with some part of the tongue in a very high
position in the mouth (another word for "close vowel" is High).
Closed syllable - a syllable that ends in a consonant sound.
Communicative types of sentences are differentiated in speech according to the aim of
utterance from the point of view of communication.
66
Consonant cluster — combination of consonant sounds with no intervening vowel.
Continuant - a consonant sound, which can be pronounced continuously.
Dark L - used before consonants and before w and before a pause
Dental articulation is the using the tongue against teeth
Devoicing - after voiceless plosives voiced consonants become devoiced
Diphthong - a combination of two vowel sounds pronounced in one syllable.
Diphthogization - changing of a simple vowel into a diphthong.
Direct address - is a word or a group of words used to address a person or a group of
people.
Elision - when a phoneme (vowels or consonants) is dropped in certain words in rapid
colloquial speech (e.g. Christmas, listen, know, gnat, etc.)
English rhythm has been described as 'stress-timed', meaning that stressed syllables tend to
occur at roughly equal intervals and that unstressed syllables fit the time interval between
stresses. 'Stress-timed' languages are contrasted with 'syllable-timed' ones (French is the most
frequently cited) in which all syllables are said to occupy roughly equal lengths of time.
Free vowels - are those, which are pronounced with lessening the force of utterance
towards their end.
Fricative consonants have the narrowing of passage above tongue
Fricative - (consonant) produced by expelling breath through small passage formed by
tongue or lips so that the air in escaping makes a kind of hissing sound.
Front vowel - a vowel, which is pronounced with the rip the tongue higher than the rest of
the tongue.
Glide - Sound produced in passing from one position of the organs of speech to another.
Glottis - openings between the vocal cords.
Glottal stop - vocal folds blocking the passage of air
Homographs are words which have the same spelling but with different pronunciations.
Homophones - are words with different spellings and different meanings but the same
pronunciation. 'Knows' and 'nose' are homophones, for example - so are: 'reed' and 'read'
(infinitive), 'key' and 'quay', 'I', 'eye' and 'aye' and so on.
Horizontal position - a description in the production of vowels of the position of the
higher part of the tongue as begin in from mid or back part of the mouth.
Inter-vocalic – a consonant between vowels
Intonation is a complex unity of variations in pitch, stress, tempo, timbre and rhythm.
An intonation group is the shortest possible unit of speech from the point of view of meaning,
grammatical structure and intonation.
Labialization - lip rounding. Consonant phonemes are labialized before the sonorant [ w ] of the
same word e.g. swim, queen, dwell, twins.
Labio-dental – consonants pronounced with lower lip linked with upper teeth
Lateral plosion takes place at the junction of a stop (usually [ t ] and [ d ] )
and the lateral sonorant [ l ] . This assimilation occurs within a word and at the word boundaries:
e.g. little; that lesson; middle, needle ;
Lax vowel - a vowel, which is pronounced with the muscles of the throat and tongue lax.
Limerick- type of a 5-lined verse with 3 stressed words in lines 1,2,5 and two stressed words in
lines 3,4.
Loss of aspiration. The aspirated English stop phonemes [ p, t, k] lose their aspiration after
67
[s ] and before a stressed vowel: e.g. speak, skate, style, sky, style, stake;
Loss of plosion. At the junction of two stops [ p, b, t, d, k, g] or a stop and an affricate [ C ], [G]
the first consonant loses its plosion ( both within the same word and at the junction of words):
e.g. glad to see you; sit down; midday, black chair; picture, what kind,
Low vowel - see Open vowel
Mid-open vowel - a vowel, which is pronounced with the tongue in a mid, neither high, nor low
position.
Minimal pair - two words, which are pronounced the same, except for a single sound phoneme.
Minimal sentences - two or three sentences, which are pronounced the same except for a single
sound-phoneme. Not only must the sounds of the sentences be the same, but the stress,
intonation, etc. must also be the same for the sentences to be minimal.
Mixed vowel - the vowel at the production of which the front (or central) part and back part of
tongue are raised simultaneously.
Monophthong - is a pure (unchanging) vowel sound.
Nasal - a sound at the production of which the air is allowed to go through the nasal cavity.
Nasal plosion - nasal escape of the air when a plosive consonant sound is followed by a nasal
sound. Nasal plosion takes place at the junction of a stop consonant phoneme and the
nasal sonorants [m, n]: e.g. garden, help me, bitten, get more;
Nucleus - the beginning of a diphthong; the starting-point. Open
syllable - a syllable that ends in a vowel sound.
Open vowel - a vowel, at the production of which, the tongue is in its lowest position.
Oral - a sound at the production of which the air is forced to go only through the mouth.
Palate is a hard bony structure at the top of the roof of the mouth, just behind the alveolar ridge.
Palatalization is the articulation process which involves the raising of the front of the tongue
towards the palate.
Parenthesis - is a word, a phrase or a sentence, which serves to show the speaker's attitude to
the thought expressed in the sentence, to connect the given sentence with another one or to add
some detail to the main idea.
Partial devoicing. The English sonorants [ m, n, l, r, w, j] are partially devoiced after voiceless
consonants (usually within a word): e.g. try, clean, sleep, prey, price, swim, floor, small;
Phoneme - a single significantly distinctive speech - sound. The phoneme of a language
contrasts with one another.
Phonemic alphabet - an alphabet, which contains one and only one symbol for one phoneme.
Pitch component of intonation, or melody, is the changes in the pitch of the voice in connected
speech.
Plosion - release of articulation organs with an explosive sound. It is true whenever the plosive
sound /k,g,p,b,t.d/ occur in speech.
Plosive – a sound in which air-stream is entirely blocked for a short time, p,b,t,d,k,g
Puff- short, quick expel of air.
Quantitative reduction - when the length of the vowel is reduced without changing its quality.
Qualitative reduction — when the quality of the vowel is changed.
Reduction - is the weakening of a sound in an unstressed position.
68
Rounded vowel - a vowel, which is pronounced with the lips rounded. In English only the back
vowels are rounded; and the close, back vowel sounds are rounded more than the open, back
vowels.
RP -Received Pronunciation or SBS
SBS - Southern British Standard or Received Pronunciation
Syllabic consonants - sounds which are rather longer than usual and have syllable making
function like vowels, examples: '-l' and '-n'
Rhythmic group - a word or a group of words that is said with a certain rhythm.
Semantic - concerned with the meaning of words.
Sense-group - is a shortest possible semantic and grammatical unit in a sentence.
Sentence stress, or accent, is the greater prominence of one or more words among other words
in the same sentence.
Speech timbre — is a special colouring of voice, which shows speakers emotions.
Stop - contact of the articulation, organs, i.e. the beginning of a plosive sound which is followed
by a plosion.
Stress position - that position which contains a stressed word. A stressed word in English is
generally pronounced with greater intensity (loudness); and greater duration (length of time) on
its most prominent syllable.
Syllable - speech sound or group of sounds containing one vowel pronounced as a unit and
forming a word or part of a word.
Tempo - is the relative speed with which sentences and intonation groups are pronounced
in connected speech.
Tense vowel - a vowel, which is pronounced with the muscles of the throat and tongue
tense.
Tooth-ridge - a small ridge just behind top teeth.
Traditional orthography - the spelling system generally used for writing English.
Unrounded vowel - a vowel, which is pronounced with lips unrounded.
Vertical position - a description, - in the production of vowels - of the position of the
higher part of the tongue as being near the top of the mouth, in the middle of the mouth, or
near the bottom of the mouth.
Vocal cords - appendages in the throat for the production of sounds.
Voiced sound - a sound pronounced with the vocal cords tense and vibrating. In English
all vowels, and most consonants and clusters are voiced.
Voiceless consonant - a consonant pronounced with the vocal cords not vibrating but with
greater breathing.
Vowels of constantly full formation are unstressed vowels which are used in all styles of
pronunciation and are rather close in timbre to the same vowels under stress. They are used in
many words of foreign origin (Latin or Greek): e. g. extract ['ekstrækt], programme
['prougræm].
Weak form – the form of a vowel which is used with form words (articles, prepositions,
conjunctions, particles, modal verbs, auxiliary verbs) and some classes of pronouns in
unstressed positions to differentiate them from strong forms with different phonemes.
Word stress is a greater prominence of one or more syllables within a word.
Zero reduction – a process when the vowel in a reduced word is omitted.
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