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Файл:Практикум по культуре речевого общения искусство. Часть 1. Практикум
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“The true function of art,” wrote Chernishevsky, “is to explain life and comment on
it. Reality is more beautiful than its representation in art.”
The mission of the Wanderers to arouse compassion and sympathy for the common man
was a brave subject for art in Russia, not only by virtue of its social message, but by its
emphasis on the traditional Russian way of life. The repudiating of international Neo–
classicism and the ensuing rediscovery of the national artistic heritage, was the starting–point
of a modern school of painting in Russia.
Kramskoi (1837–1887) was the most mature, as well as the most talented and
vigorous of the Wanderers, indeed, he was soon as well known for his passionate articles
as for his precise, carefully observed paintings. His portraits, for instance the portrait of Leo
Tolstoy, the portrait of Nekrasov or the portrait of An Unknown Woman, are very
competent works, but many of his subject pictures lack atmosphere; not so the one entitled
Inspecting the Old House. With its desolate, nostalgic air, its furniture swathed in dust–
sheets, its chandelier hidden in wrappings, the hesitant visitors standing hushed, listening
to the crumbling past – it is as if, outside the cherry orchard was being felled.
Vassili Polenov (1844–1927), another member of the group, who had studied at the
Moscow College of Painting and Sculpture, was one of the first painters of the Russian
countryside. The Russian school of landscape painting was a development peculiarly
connected with Moscow. Since its foundation in the 1840s the Moscow College of
Painting and Sculpture (in 1865 an architectural faculty was added) had laid stress on
“plain air” studies of nature. Not only did the Moscow College encourage study from nature
which was almost unheard of at the Petersburg Academy, but it was also a more liberal
institution. In the 60s the first students to have graduated from the Moscow College returned to
it as teachers. Among these was A. Savrassov (1830–1897) who is known as “the Father of the
Russian school of landscape painting”. Savrassov’s landscape paintings were, however, few and it
was left to his followers, Polenov and Shishkin, to develop this part of his work. These painters were
still hampered by a stylized, literary approach in their work, and it is not until Isaac Levitan
(1860–1900) that the Russian school of landscape painting produced a really creative and
expressive master.
Vassili Surikov (1848–1916) was the first of the Wanderers to combine national ideals with
an urge to find a new language in which to express those ideals. Born in Krasnoyarsk in Siberia,
Surikov set out for Petersburg on horseback in 1868 to join the Academy. He was a year on his
journey, for on his way he made frequent stops in the ancient towns through which he passed. In
particular Kazan and Nizhni Novgorod impressed him, but it was Moscow that bowled him over.
“Coming to Moscow, to that centre of national life, I immediately saw my way,” he wrote later.
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Surikov’s masterpiece, as it is generally considered, The Boyarina Morozova (1887),
depicting the persecution of the “old believers” by the patriarch Nikon, is set in the streets of
medieval Moscow. It is an enormous painting – both in size and scale it is in the nature of a wall-
painting. The pictorial construction of this work reminds one of the great Italian monumental
painters whose work Surikov so much admired – Michelangelo, Tintoretto, Titian and Veronese. It
is full of movement – the fresh, solid colour glances from form to form, gesture carries on to
gesture, until finally one’s eye is arrested by the central figure of the Boyarina with her dramatic
uplifted hand and pointing fingers. This dynamic quality had always been a fundamental
characteristic of Russian painting, and in Surikov’s work it re-emerges from the medieval
traditions for the first time. With Surikov the peculiar colour range of Byzantine art is likewise
revived – the rich browns, sombre red and clear yellow. A decorative surface rhythm and strong
horizontals are other characteristics common to Russian art, both ancient and modern, and
likewise first recovered in the work of Surikov.
Surikov possessed an instinctive understanding of nature, and the glimpses of landscape in
the backgrounds of his pictures acted as a stimulus, inspiring artists such as A. Kuindzhi (1842–
1910), I. Ayvazovski (1817–1900), and I. Levitan to create a school of real landscape painting.
Ilya Repin (1844–1930), a colleague and close friend of Polenov’s was also one of the
group. Though never an active member of the Society of Wandering Art Exhibitions, he was
nevertheless deeply influenced by Kramskoi and his followers. He was a far more articulate and
distinguished master of his medium than any of the original “fourteen”.
Repin’s overriding interest in people led him to devote most of his time to painting his
contemporaries. Practically everybody of importance sat for Repin, who recorded their appearance
in restrained and severe colours, which differ completely in character from the sombre colours used
by many of the Wanderers. In Repin the colours are a reflection of his mood, for, like so many of
his contemporaries, he too was often grieved by the darkening outlook. He expressed his dislike of
oppression in some subject paintings. The finest of these is a picture he painted in 1884, entitled
They did not Expect Him; it illustrated the return of a political exile from Siberia. It is a
poignant, profound, and extremely convincing psychological study, as well as a painting of real
aesthetic merit. This painting is one of his few full-sized paintings, for Repin spent much time
working on studies before executing a painting in full-scale. In many of those studies one can
discern an extremely talented draughtsman with a real perception of nature. The no less sincere and
aesthetically equally important painting which is generally known by the name of The Volga
Boatmen is likewise concerned in drawing attention to a social evil.
Some of Repin’s paintings were executed at Abramtsevo, an estate near Moscow. It
belonged to Savva Mamontov, the Russian railway tycoon of the 1870s, who surrounded himself
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with the most progressive personalities of his day, not only painters but composers, singers,
architects, art historians, writers and actors. This colony of artists brought together by
Mamontov was known as “Mamontov’s circle”. They were inspired by ideals of bettering the life
of the people. “Mamontov’s circle” drawn together by the common determination to create a new
Russian culture, can be regarded as the cradle of the modern movement in Russian art.
Valentin Serov (1865–1911), the son of the opera composer, had come as a small boy to live
at Abramtsevo with his widowed mother in 1874. He grew up in the atmosphere of constant creative
activity which characterized the Mamontov household. From a very early age Serov was given
drawing lessons by Repin, who was very fond of the little boy, and he soon showed himself to be a
remarkably precocious draughtsman. He would catch the likeness of a model often more quickly
and surely than the older artists in the merry «drawing competitions» which were so much part
of this gay, idyllic life of Abramtsevo. This talent for catching a likeness Serov later developed
and he became the most successful and brilliant portraitist of the 1890’s and first decade of this
century. But before this he was a beautiful landscape painter in a more sensuous and less
nostalgic vein than his master Levitan. Serov, like Korovin, was a most beneficial influence in the
Moscow College where he taught from 1900 up till 1909. He was a superb technical master of the
many media in which he practiced and that too did not fail to impress his students. Surikov had
shown him the value of fine colours, a lesson which the revived interest in icons had helped to
stress. It was from these ancient panels that Serov also became aware of the significance of the
essential in a composition and the unimportance of the unnecessary, but it was undoubtedly
Vrubel who showed Serov the value of responding to a personal emotional experience. Serov was
thus able to make his mark at the age of twenty–two on exhibiting two paintings, Girl with
Peaches and Girl in Sunlight. At the time of painting them he was unfamiliar with the works of
the French Impressionists, yet he came very close to Renoir in these luminous, sunny, splendidly
composed portraits.
Mikhail Vrubel. In 1890 V. Serov introduced his close friend Mikhail Vrubel (1856–1910)
to Mamontov. It was to prove the turning point of Vrubel’s artistic life. He had had a brilliant early
career at the Petersburg Academy, which he entered in 1880. Even before he graduated, Vrubel’s
teachers recommended him to Professor Prakhov who came to the school in 1883 to find students
who would help him with the restoration of the twelfth century church of Saint Cyril in Kiev. The
opportunity to become familiar with Byzantine art at first hand proved decisive in Vrubel’s
development. At this point began that relentless search for a new pictorial vocabulary which was
the driving force throughout his work. It was during Vrubel’s work in Saint Cyril that he
discovered the eloquence of line. “Byzantine painting”, wrote Vrubel later, “differs fundamentally
from three-dimensional art. Its whole essence lies in the ornamental arrangement of form which
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emphasizes the flatness of the wall.” This use of ornamental rhythms to point up the flat surface of
the canvas was constantly exploited by Vrubel. An example of this is The Dance of Tamara, a watercolour of 1890. This is one of the series by Vrubel illustrating Lermontov’s poem The Demon,
commissioned for a jubilee edition published in 1890. It was Vrubel’s first Moscow commission.
The passionate study of Byzantine art which Kiev inspired in Vrubel took him next to
Venice. In Kiev he had discovered line, in Venice he discovered colour. When Vrubel returned to
Russia in 1885 he began the series of Demon pictures inspired by Lermontov. This image came to
haunt him more and more persistently.
Apart from his work on monumental painting, Vrubel had concentrated largely on watercolour during the last ten years of his life; he considered this medium to be the most exacting
discipline.
More than any other artist Vrubel was the inspiration to the “avant-garde” in Russia during
the next twenty years. He might be termed the Russian Cezanne, for they share a number of
characteristics: both artists bridge the centuries in their work, and not only the centuries, but the
two visions which so radically divide the XIX century from the XX; “modern art” from the art
of Europe since the Renaissance and the birth of easel painting.
Most of Vrubel’s drawings are studies of flowers, but not of flowers growing in the field in
their natural environment; they are penetrating close–ups of the tangled interplay of forms, giving
them in their artificial isolation a peculiar dramatic rhythm. Vrubel is at his greatest in these
exquisite water-colour and pencil sketches. His searching pencil attacks the model from every
viewpoint: in transparent interweaving patterns, in balancing mass against mass, in mosaic-like
patterning. It is for this tireless, exhaustive examination of the possibilities of pictorial
representation that the next generations so revered Vrubel, as well as for his extraordinary
imaginative vision.
Vladimir Favorsky (1886–1964) left his mark in many spheres of art. As a young man, he
worked enthusiastically at easel painting and later retained a fondness for painting still lives and
landscapes. Until the end of his days he continued to enjoy pencil drawing, particularly
portraits. His experiments in the sphere of monumental painting are also worth mentioning; they
show a profound understanding of the indissoluble link between wall painting and architecture.
In spite of all this, Favorsky was undoubtedly first and foremost an engraver, and his
medium was wood. It was to the wood engraving that he devoted the greatest effort and owed
those great successes which secured for him one of the first places in modern art. Favorsky realized
the fascination of the actual technique of the woodcut and wood engraving, the beauty of the
material which the artist is called upon to reveal in the very process of imposing his own will upon it.
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The chief place in Favorsky’s work belongs to book illustration. This, however, did not
prevent him from producing a number of wall prints (often in linoleum), in which he incorporated the experience gained from his work on books.
To appreciate the originality of Favorsky’s engravings, it is essential to bear in mind
that he was never satisfied with the creation of illustrations as separate, graphic pictures not seen as
integral parts of the printed page.
Favorsky uses his skill in composition not only in the designing of whole books and whole
pages, but in the structure of each separate image. With great sensitivity he succeeds in expressing
the essence of his subject by the very way in which the component parts fall into position.
7. The Early Renaissance Art
The Renaissance, an age of discovery, found painters deeply concerned with investigations
and experiments. New importance was given to the human figure, which now became one of the
essential motifs of all painting and the basis of Renaissance humanism. In its initial stages
Renaissance painting was stimulated by antique sculpture to an intensive study of the human body –
its structure and mechanism. The XV century artists were fascinated by science, mathematics,
geometry and above all perspective. The breadth of knowledge of these artists was astounding,
ranging from the simplest craft processes to the highest intellectual speculation.
Giotto (1266/76–1337). The history of painting in Western Europe begins with the thirteenth
century pioneer, Giotto. From the relatively stiff artistic background of his time Giotto developed a
majestic, sculptural style which set Italian art on its future path. Although his technical contribution
to painting is enormous, Giotto’s great feeling for humanity makes his work a high point in the
movement toward the humanizing of art and life begun early in the century. In both respects he is a key
figure, his personality stamped on the whole course of Italian art. For more than two hundred years
after his death artists acknowledged their debt to this master of monumental dignity and controlled
emotional strength.
The young Giotto helped with the frescoes in the great church of St Francis in Assisi. Here
the young apprentice absorbed both the flat–patterned, emotional art of his own teacher (Cimabue, a
Florentine artist) and the rounded forms of the painters from Rome who had been influenced by the
ancient sculptures in the Eternal City. Giotto combined these qualities to form a new and personal style.
In a «St Francis» done for the Church of Santa Croce in Florence, Giotto repeated the
powerful sculpturesque impression and sense of dignity achieved by him earlier in his frescoes
painted at Padua. To these elements he added the quality of decorative symmetry. The Death of St
Francis reveals a carefully balanced composition which increases the effectiveness of the presentation
in a way that was to become increasingly characteristic of Italian art.
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Masaccio (1401–1428/29). Giotto’s method had been to outline the figure and, through the
powerful contour, suggest a third dimension. Line was a shorthand method of indicating form; it
carried the eye of the spectator in the directions desired by the painter. Masaccio achieved a
considerable optical illusion of depth in his landscapes, as well as in the painting of architectural
constructions, applying the laws of perspective. Masaccio’s method is illustrated by the famous The
Tribute Money. It differentiates between the light that falls on a rounded figure and the shadows it casts
– more or less what actually happens in nature. The light-and-dark or chiaroscuro technique was
conceived almost at one stroke. During a period of perhaps three years, the artist developed this new
way of building up the mass of a form and of placing it in a given part of three-dimensional space.
The effect of his remarkable feat can be traced in the work of the great masters of the High
Renaissance.
Masaccio was also able to portray figures out of doors so convincingly that they appear to
blur as they move away from us. Linear perspective reproduces the effect of forms growing smaller
in the distance. With his new aerial perspective Masaccio pointed out that they also grow dimmer
and out of focus.
Van Eyck (1370/85–1441). Realism became a force that gave new life to art in the whole of
Europe during the early XV century, and one of its leading figures was the Flemish painter Jan van Eyck.
Jan van Eyck discovered for himself that the illusion of reality could be heightened by a
systematic arrangement of light and shade which subdued the colour of the object and created atmosphere.
The paintings of Jan van Eyck have an enamel-like surface giving an almost jeweled effect;
the particularly shiny and transparent quality is due to the use of the newly-developed oil-and-egg
emulsion. The rooms are filled with atmosphere that seems so real as to be almost tangible. This
atmospheric effect is a constant feature of Flemish painting. Along with the luminous detail and highly
polished finish of the various objects, it turns up once more in the Dutch painters of the XVII century
like Vermeer.
Van Eyck’s great masterpieces are the paintings for the altar at Ghent: The Betrothal of the
Arnolfini and The Rollin Madonna (or The Virgin with Chancellor Rollin). He reached his greatest
triumph in the painting of portraits which stressed the unique human features of each individual.
Botticelli (1445–1510). Botticelli is one of the great poetic painters – sensitive, withdrawn
from the world, interested in the expression of a delicate and exquisite feeling unmatched in his or
almost any time. In strong contrast to the sculpturesque scientific method of the Giotto-Masaccio
tradition, Botticelli’s work is a gentle, lyrical, poetic style worked out with flat picture surfaces and
decorative flowing linear effects. Emotionally it is never brutal or overpowering, but diffident,
reserved, subtly suffering.
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The Birth of Venus is the poet-painter’s evocation of the goddess of love out of the sea. In a
remote and self-absorbed way, she stands on a cockleshell, blown shoreward by breezes represented
on the left. The semicircular composition is completed by the woman on the right who eagerly waits
to receive the nude goddess. In spite of this arrangement the picture is not balanced in the
monumental Masaccio manner; it is rather a series of twisting, turning lines and forms. The painter
is not interested in stressing the three-dimensional or sculptural quality, but rather in evoking
emotional effects through the restlessness of outline and mood.
A special place in the treasury of world graphic art belongs to Botticelli’s superb series of
pen drawings for Dante’s Divine Comedy which date from about 1485–1490. His other drawings
rank just as high.
Botticelli’s exquisite, poetic drawing of Abundance has long been looked upon as perhaps the
most beautiful Florentine drawing in the world. It is not a study for a painting, but a drawing done
for its own sake and highly finished. It is a fine pen drawing with brown wash on a light reddish
ground heightened with white. The horn of plenty and the children on the left are done in black chalk.
While as a rule we speak of Botticelli as a line artist, it is clear that in this masterpiece there is
added a tonal effect which is the result of a skilful combination in the use of brush and pen.
8. The High Renaissance Art
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). The history of western civilization records no man as gifted as
Leonardo da Vinci. He was outstanding as painter, sculptor, musician, architect, engineer, scientist
and philosopher, and was unquestionably the most glittering personality of the High Renaissance in
Italy. Leonardo was renowned in a period that produced such giants as Raphael, Michelangelo, and
Titian, and his fame, unlike that of many of the great masters has suffered no eclipse to this day.
Leonardo da Vinci was born in Tuscany, the illegitimate son of a successful notary and a
peasant mother. By 1469 Leonardo was living in Florence where he served an apprenticeship with
Verrocchio, who, to quote an old story, “gave up the brush when his pupil proved a greater artist
than he.” Even as a youth he displayed an aptitude for all manner of achievement, a winning charm,
and a personal strength and beauty which have become almost legendary.
Few of Leonardo’s paintings have come down to us: only about eighteen in all, some left
unfinished, some damaged or deteriorated as a result of his experimental techniques, and others
obscured by discoloured varnish.
Before Leonardo, there had been two parallel trends in Italian painting: the monumental
scientific side represented by Masaccio and the more decorative, linear and poetic side, expressed in
Botticelli. Leonardo achieves a combination of these two trends. His impressive idealized forms are
worked out with every consideration for scientific knowledge, and yet seem surrounded by an aura
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of poetic sentiment. By the eighties of the XV century, however, he far outshone his predecessors and
contemporaries in the monumental composition of his paintings and the stress he laid on visual plasticity.
The earliest work from Leonardo’s hand which we know today is the angel in profile at the left
in Andrea del Verrocchio’s The Baptism of Christ, painted probably in the early 1470’s when
Leonardo was still in Verrocchio’s workshop. In Verrocchio’s workshop Leonardo could obtain the
best education of his time, not only in art but in independent and scientific thinking. In those days
the artists had to do everything themselves without outside help; they got ready suitable panels or
canvases, ground and mixed pigments, prepared oils, varnishes, and glues. It was Verrocchio who not
only transmitted the artistic ideals of Donatello to Leonardo, but who also transmitted to him many
technicalities of scientific research and the love of science.
The Adoration of the Magi was produced shortly after leaving Verrocchio’s workshop in
1481. It was not finished and it remains today as Leonardo left it, with only the first brown
underpainting laid on.
Unfortunately, he was too busy with a host of other projects to finish many pictures. One of
the greatest of the few he left is The Madonna of the Rocks. Here, in one painting, are the qualities
that make Leonardo a typical artist of the late or High Renaissance: an increasingly idealized portrayal
of human beings and a format, mathematical arrangement of the persons in the picture. The conception
of the children in this picture, the gently smiling angel and the otherworldly Madonna, all contribute
a feeling of more than human nobility and perfection. The figures move in a dignified, restrained way,
their gestures have a solemnity and poise that are seldom found in ordinary people.
In Milan Leonardo worked on many important projects including The Madonna of the Rocks
and The Last Supper. The latter (perhaps the best–known painting in the world) offers one of the
finest instances of a rigid geometric enclosure. Everything turns inward toward the head of Christ,
even the expressive gestures of his own hands. In spite of the great excitement within the work,
complete formal control is maintained. We can appreciate the artist’s way of presenting the human
drama where Christ discloses to his followers quietly that soon one of their number is to betray him
and their cause. It is the reaction of the followers, the study of people and their attitude to a shocking
announcement that the great artist is concerned with.
In fact, Leonardo’s main contribution to art was the way he rendered the real world around
him. He made a human being look as if you could step into the flat surface of the picture and walk
around behind it. This was possible because of his understanding of light and shade and of perspective. In
the profound composition, the calm of the figure of Christ is in poignant contrast with the tragic
turmoil his words have caused among his disciples. The figures of the apostles standing out as in–
high relief are illuminated by a clear and penetrating light, behind them are shadow and the orderly
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architectural details of the room, and beyond the windows, a landscape bathed in twilight glow. There
is, in The Last Supper an imposing grandeur of conception and a powerful plasticity in the forms.
Unfortunately he tried out some new ideas with the paint that he used and this was to prove
most fatal as the picture began to peel and blister only a few years after it was finished. The Last
Supper is now only a ghost of its original self. It was painted on a wall of the refectory of the
Convent of Dominican Friars, in Milan, at the order of Lodovico Sforza. It was painted not in true
fresco but in an experimental oil technique and in a short time began to deteriorate because of the
dampness of the wall.
Leonardo created an enigma, a problem to which he gives no answer. There is a deep and
complex inner life to his figures that finds a parallel only in those of Rembrandt. The personality of
Mona Lisa, for instance, impresses itself upon us vividly but there is always something about her which
we cannot grasp. Mona Lisa is one of Leonardo’s greatest works because of its plasticity, the delicate
rendering of light and shade, and the poetic use of his so-called “sfumato” to emphasize the
gentleness and serenity of the sitter’s face and the beauty of her hands. It is the supreme example of
Leonardo’s unique ability to create a masterpiece which lies between the realm of poetry and the
concrete realism of a portrait. That is why the painting is so disquieting and why it has aroused so
many divergent theories. Actually, the portrait is the fusion of Leonardo’s artistic beliefs: the idea that it
is humanly possible to represent nature visually in all the fullness of its realism; the deep nostalgia,
characteristic of Leonardo’s generation, for a calm and remote beauty; and the individual
characterization which was the aim of Renaissance portraiture. The landscape background is a
splendid page of romanticized geology, a natural lock, below, holding back the blue lake and the
river. Leonardo’s facility of execution is without limit. Nature seems to present no problem that he
does not solve.
Little is known about his colour, but judging from the recent cleaning of the London version
of The Virgin of the Rocks it was generally subdued for the sake of the greater delicacy of modeling
with occasional brighter accents of cold contrasting tones that add to the strange and mysterious
atmosphere.
The only authentic self portrait of Leonardo done in red chalk in his last years is executed in
a firm, clear style.
Leonardo’s “Sfumato”. Leonardo’s “sfumato” is in no way impressionistic or sketchy; it
is the techniques of creating vague and veiled edges to the shadings on the bodies. This playing
alternately with light and deep transparent shadows over figures, anatomically perfect and
strongly plastic, gives the forms a vibrant and living quality. They seem to throb with life under
our very eyes, a striking contrast with the more static and definitely outlined figures of the
predominant fifteenth-century tradition.
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Raphael (1483–1520). Raphael was born in Urbino in 1483. At an early age Raphael must
have come under the influence of Pietro Perugino’s art. In the inspired beauty and tranquil flowing
lines of Perugino’s compositions, the young Raphael recognized the perfection of his own artistic
aspirations.
Raphael went to Florence late in the autumn of 1504. Soon his works bear evidence of the
impressions which had conquered him there.
All those world-famous Madonnas which Raphael painted during his Florentine period, from
the end of 1504 to the end of 1508, are but the more mature sisters of the Madonna Conestabile and
of the Marriage of the Virgin, painted by him earlier.
In all his Madonna compositions the movements and groupings are handled with such
ingenuity and naturalness that the spectator can hardly ever be aware of the careful planning, the
precise calculation of even each brushstroke. Thus, Raphael’s artistic connection with Leonardo is a
very particular one; he was the only immediate follower capable of further developing Leonardo’s
ideas and of adding his own.
Towards the end of the year 1508, Raphael left Florence to participate in the decoration of the
Vatican. The first room which Raphael was commissioned to paint is referred to as Stanza della
Segnatura. The completion of the frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura in 1511 signified a great
triumph for Raphael. The Pope immediately decided to have Raphael paint the decorations in the
adjoining room, which was used for private audiences, without regard to already existing paintings
by older as well as contemporary artists. A careful examination of the existing documents on this
subject leaves no margin for doubt that works by Piero della Francesca, Bramantino and others had
to be effaced in order to make room for the new paintings with which the Stanza d’Eliodoro was to
be adorned.
During the brief seven years before Raphael’s death an astonishing number of masterpieces
were created. In addition, innumerable ideas and artistic inventions of Raphael survive in
engravings, woodcuts and studio-paintings.
In the Madonna paintings of Raphael’s last period only a few compositions with half-length
figures, such as the Madonna della Tenda in Munich and the Madonna with the Rose in the Prado,
need be mentioned. The others are compositions with full-length figures, mostly of large dimensions.
Among them the most famous Madonna representation of all times: the Madonna with St Sixtus and St
Barbara in the Dresden Gallery. Apparently neither Raphael nor his contemporaries were aware
what a unique masterpiece they sent to the Black Monks of St Sisto in Piacenza. It is not until the
XVIII century that the picture gained the enthusiastic admiration which it has retained ever since.
This was the last Madonna which Raphael painted. It was executed entirely by his own hand, and
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