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Файл:Практикум по культуре речевого общения искусство. Часть 1. Практикум
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black or white? The Impressionists took quite a different attitude and asked whether it was a
bluish grey or a greenish grey or a purplish grey, or a reddish grey: in a word, not whether it was
light or dark, but which colour in the solar spectrum it came closest to.
To the Impressionists shadow was not an absence of light, but light of a different quality and
of different value. In their exhaustive research into the true colours of shadows in nature, they
conquered the last unknown territory in the domain of Realist Painting.
To sum up, then, it may be said that Impressionist Painting is based on two great
principles:
1. The substitution of a Simultaneous Vision that sees a scene as a whole in place of
Consecutive Vision that sees nature piece by piece.
2. The substitution of a Chiaroscuro based on the colours of the solar spectrum for a
Chiaroscuro based on Black and White.
This new technique, with all the research and experiment which it implies, was not the
invention of one man but the outcome of the life studies of a whole group of men. Most prominent
among those who brought Impressionist painting to perfection in theory and practice were
Camille Pissarro, Claude Monet, and Auguste Renoir.
5. Edouard Manet
After travelling in Germany, Austria and Italy to study the Old Masters, Manet (1832–
1883) finally found in the paintings by Velasquez and Goya at the Louvre the answer to all his
questionings and aspirations for light and truth. Influenced by these masters and by the example
of Courbet, a French realist painter, he gradually evolved a new technique which presented modern
aspects by modern methods. Observing how one colour melted into another in nature, he
declared, “There are no lines in Nature”, and in his pictures he abandoned the convention of
the outline and shaped his forms by a modelling obtained by subtle gradations of tints which
fused into one another. The problem of just illumination was to Manet a matter of primary
importance. He built up his pictures by the direct application of planes of colour rather than by
working up an underpainting based on linear de sign and light and shade, and he also chose his
subjects from the life around him.
Manet’s painting aroused great controversy. He contributed a large canvas Luncheon on
the Grass to the Salon of 1863. We have an account of how the picture originated.
“One Sunday we were at Argenteuil stretched out on the river-bank, watching the white
yawls furrowing the scene, and their light colours set in relief against the dark blue water. Women
were bathing. Manet had fixed his gaze on the skin of one coming out of the water. ‘It looks’ he
said, ‘as though I shall have to paint a nude. Well then, so I will. When we were at the studio,
I copied Giorgione’s women, the women with the musician. That painting was dark. The
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backgrounds are pushed to one side. I’m going to repaint this and do it in a transparent atmosphere
with characters like those over there. The critics will savage me, but they can say what they
like.” Manet painted two versions, one four feet wide and a large one, nearly nine feet wide,
destined for the Salon. The composition is the same, but the smaller of the two is more luminous, the
landscape more airy, the execution more spontaneous with its contrasting, unsoftened light and the
nude fashioned without the traditional modelling, only from splashes of shadow. Haying learned
from the reception given to his Musique aux Tuileries Manet probably tried – –in the larger painting
– to soften the harsh effects of contrast that shocked the public. But by doing so he partially killed
the luminous life of his composition the elements of which no longer amalgamate having lost their
sole factor of unity. The figures no longer, as in the sketch, integrate with the landscape and their group-
ing seems artificial and their positions fixed.
Because of the picture’s subject, a modernization of a Renaissance theme, and Manet’s
new sketchy technique, it caused an unprecedented scandal. Why was it such a shock to the
public? Simply, because those passages in full light, and those in shadow, instead of passing
very gradually one into the other, were sharply contrasted; hence the picture s crude, harsh look.
Manet’s most important work of 1866 is The Fifer. The picture was built up in three
stages with a sureness and quickness of hand which no other artist has ever surpassed. As a
student Manet had been taught to prepare a picture in monochrome. Now he rejected such leading
strings. He painted straight on to the canvas which had been given a ground of unified colour.
Light and shade were arrived at by the most economical means. To the face, and the flesh–tones he
gave a wonderful living texture, first establishing them by means of a middle tone, then laying in
the shadows, and then finally adding the highlights. He mixed his colours very little. Seen from
close up, the red breeches seem all one tone, like a lacquer. But a few touches of black, hardly
visible when one is looking at the canvas from close up to serve as soon as one gets away from it,
to give splendid modelling to the coarse uniform cloth.
The artist became the pioneer of the new generation of painters, who were going even
beyond Courbet’s realism in their attempt to record not their knowledge of the subject but their
visual conceptions of it. Manet’s paintings met their demands: forms are suggested by the
juxtaposition of broad strokes of colours instead of definite contours. His canvases depicting topical themes and painted in smooth, even colours made Manet an innovator of the new art.
6. Auguste Renoir
Renoir (1841–1919) was born at Limoges, and at the age of thirteen began to earn his
living as a painter on porcelain. This early apprenticeship left a certain trace on his art which was
always decorative in spite of its later realism. In time Renoir saved up enough money to go to Paris
and became a pupil of Gleyre in whose studio he met Sisley and Monet. Working together in
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1868–1869, Monet and Renoir made some paintings at a riverside restaurant near Paris when they
were forced, in their treatment of light and colour reflected in the water and over the figures, to
break up the paint texture in sketchy touches and use brighter hues.
Renoir participated in the 1876 exhibition of the Impressionists with a series of canvases
in which the light playing over the bright clothes of the figures is the main feature. Even the
shadows in these paintings are full of colour, and the painting as a whole becomes a
shimmering and quivering surface.
Throughout his Impressionist period that is from 1872–1883, Renoir practiced a variety of
techniques, putting on his colour now in thick, squashing strokes, now in thin layers, now in
distinct, separate touches, now in smooth strokes that melted into one another.
It was not unusual for Renoir to switch from one technique to another in the same
picture as in The Path Winding up through Tall Grass. Only the grass in the foreground is
painted in thick, vigorous comma-like brush strokes, while the middle distance and the background
glide away in thin, flat patches of colours merging into one another.
In his compositions of 1875 and 1876 he comes to use the human figure in a very original
fashion, like a subject that is part of a landscape, on which light may play with greater richness and
fantasy. In a sort of bluish half darkness, the light appears in the form of large round patches, a
little pink, placed indifferently on faces and clothing and creating a phantasmagoria of colours, particularly on charming dresses with their bustles ornamented with stripes and ribbons. In this spirit
he produces The Swing and the great composition of the Moulin de la Galette, one of the finest,
most smiling of his masterpieces. It is like a marvelous tissue of interwoven sunlight and soft hazy
blue. In foregoing the small separate touches he used for so many landscapes and open-air scenes at
this period, he painted with criss-crossing brush strokes, laid on in thin, successive layers and
melting into one another, which repeated form and volume, while at the same time rendering
the luminous atmosphere bathing the figures.
The Portrait of Jeanne Samary may well be the most impressionist of Renoir’s portraits.
With no hint of shadows or darkness anywhere, with little or no variation in values, the whole
canvas is a quilt of tiny quivering touches alive with light and a gemlike sparkle. The sitter in this
work was Jeanne Samary, an actress at the Comedie Franci aise who had the natural charm and
beauty that Renoir required in his models, as well as a luminous complexion so that, in the artist’s
words “she seemed to radiate a light from within”.
Outings in the country and boating on the river were themes that never failed to inspire the
Impressionist painters. After the pleasure garden of the Moulin de la Galette, Renoir painted here
the sunny animated atmosphere of a riverside restaurant on the Seine, just outside of Paris.
Now he tried his hand at special effects of light filtering through an awning, and superbly evoked
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the beauty of a summer day out of doors. Nor did he ever succeed better than here in
individualizing his figures, recording their every movement and attitude. Luncheon of the Boating
Party is certainly one of Renoir’s finest canvases. There are however several passages that may
strike us as being a trifle dry. The light, on the other hand, is beyond all praise, playing beautifully over the young woman holding a puppy in the left foreground – none other than Aline
Charigot soon to become Renoir’s wife — and the still life on the table, the leftovers of the picnic
lunch. The girl in the center, lolling on the railing, outlined against the landscape is again Renoir
at his best. But we get a dissonant note in the lower right hand corner of the canvas, particularly in
the man straddling the chair, with his hat rakishly back, who is handled more dryly than the rest,
and seen in a harsher light.
Later on in his career, Renoir abandoned the Impressionist technique of painting with
sketchy touches of thick paint, and defined his forms with layers of thin, transparent glazes that
gave his tones a deep inner glow rather than a surface sparkle.
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IV. GEOGRAPHICAL AND PROPER NAMES
A
Abraham – Авраам, ветхозаветный патриарх, который первый познал лживость служения
идолам и постиг существование единого Бога.
“Abundance” – «Рог Изобилия».
The Acropolis – Акрополь.
Actaeon – Актеон, в античной мифологии – охотник, нечаянно увидевший нагую Диану,
купавшуюся с нимфами, за это он был обращен ею в оленя и растерзан своими же собаками.
“The Adoration of the Magi” – «Поклонение волхвов».
The Aegean Islands – острова в Эгейском море.
Amenhotep IV – Аменхотеп IV, также известен как Эхнатон (Akhenaten).
“Analysis of Beauty” – «Анализ красоты» (1753), теоретический трактат Хогарта.
Andromeda – Андромеда, по античному мифу, эфиопская царевна Андромеда была обречена
стать жертвой морскому змею; герой Персей убил чудовище и освободил Андромеду.
Aphrodite – Афродита, богиня любви и красоты в древнегреческой мифологии; римлянами
отождествлялась с Венерой (Venus).
Aphrodite of Cnidus, or Cnidian Aphrodite – Афродита Книдская.
The Apocalypse – Апокалипсис (греч. откровение), раннехристианское произведение (I в.
н.э.), помещаемое в конце Нового Завета.
Apollo – Аполлон, в древнегреческой мифологии – бог солнечного света, бог–целитель и
прорицатель, покровитель искусств. Аполлон изображался прекрасным юношей с луком или
кифарой. В древнеримской мифологии отождествлялся с Фебом (Phoebus).
Aretino, Pietro – Пьетро Аретино (1492–1556), итальянский писатель и публицист эпохи
Возрождения.
Ariosto – Лодовико Ариосто (1474–1533), итальянский поэт.
Athena – Афина (Афина Паллада), в древнегреческой мифологии – богиня войны и победы,
мудрости, знаний, искусств и ремёсел; римлянами отождествлялась с Минервой.
Athens – г. Афины.
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B
The Balkan peninsula – Балканский полуостров.
Bath – г. Бат, крупный культурный центр Англии в XVIII в.
Bathsheba – библ. Вирсавия, одна из жён древнеизраильского царя Давида, мать царя
Соломона.
Beaumont, George – Джордж Бомонт (1753–1827), английский ценитель искусств,
покровитель художников и живописец-любитель.
“The Beggar’s Opera” – «Опера нищего», комическая опера английского поэта, баснописца и
драматурга Джона Гея; впервые поставлена Кристофером Ричем в 1728 г.
Bernard, Emile – Эмиль Бернар (1868–1941), французский живописец, график, теоретик
искусства.
Betterton, Thomas – Томас Беттертон (1635–1710), ведущий английский актер и драматург
второй половины XVII в.
“The Betrothal of the Arnolfini” – «Портрет Жана Арнольфини и его жены».
Blake, William – Уильям Блейк (1757–1827), английский художник и поэт-романтик.
The Bolognese – живописцы Болонской школы XVI–XVII вв. (Караччи, Гвидо Рени,
Доменикино, Гверчино).
Bonington (1801–1828) – Ричард Бонингтон, английский пейзажист.
Booth, Barton – Бартон Бут (1681–1733), английский драматург, актер и поэт.
Bosch – Иероним Босх (ок. 1450–1516), нидерландский художник.
Botticelli, Sandro – Сандро Боттичелли (1445–1510), знаменитый итальянский художник
раннего Возрождения.
Boulevard des Italiens – Итальянский бульвар, улица в Париже.
Boydell, John – Джон Бойделл (1719–1804), английский гравер, лорд-мэр Лондона.
Brabant – г. Брабант.
Breda – Бреда, область на границе Нидерландов и Бельгии.
Brittany – Бретань, область на северо-западном побережье Франции.
Brueghel (Pieter Brueghel the Elder) – Питер Брейгель Старший (ок. 1525–1569), знаменитый
нидерландский живописец, рисовальщик и гравер.
Burke, Edmund Эдмунд Берк (1729–1797), английский государственный деятель, оратор и
политический мыслитель; известен прежде всего своей работой «Философское исследование
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происхождения наших идей о высоком и прекрасном» (A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin
of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, 1757), до сих пор привлекающей внимание
эстетиков.
Burlington, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of – Ричард Берлнгтон (1694–1753), английский
архитектор-любитель, покровитель искусств; был сторонником палладианского классицизма.
Burne-Jones – Эдуард Берн–Джонс (1831–1898), видный живописец, принадлежал к
младшему поколению прерафаэлитов.
“The Burning of the Houses of Parliament” – «Пожар Парламента».
Byzantium – Византия.
C
Canaletto – Антонио Каналетто (1697–1768), венецианский художник.
Caravaggio – Караваджо (1573–1610), итальянский живописец.
“The Card Players” – «Игроки».
The Cathedral of the Annunciation – Благовещенский собор.
The Cathedral of the Assumption – Успенский собор.
The Cathedral of the Trinity – Троицкий собор.
Cezanne, Paul – Поль Сезанн (1839–1906), французский живописец-постимпрессионист.
The Church of the Intercession (of the Holy Virgin) on the Nerl – Храм Покрова на Нерли
(близ Владимира).
The Church of St Basil’s – Собор Василия Блаженного.
The Church of the Transfiguration – Преображенская церковь.
Cimabue – Джиованни Чимабуэ (ок. 1240 – ок. 1302), итальянский художник, один из
ведущих мастеров флорентийской живописи XIII в.
Chevreuil – Мишель Эжен Шеврейль (1786–1889), французский химик–органик, член
Парижской академии наук (1826).
“The Citizens of Calais” – «Граждане города Кале».
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor – Сэмюэл Тейлор Колридж (1772–1834), английский поэт-
романтик «озерной школы».
“Comedie Francaise” – «Комеди Франсез».
Constable, John – Джон Констебль (1776–1837), английский художник-пейзажист.
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Cooper – Сэмюэль Купер (1609–1672), английский художник-портретист.
Corregio – Антонио Аллегри Корреджо (1494–1534), итальянский живописец периода
Высокого Возрождения.
Cotes, Francis – Фрэнсис Коте (1726–1770), английский художник-портретист; в 60-х гг.
XVIII в. был самым популярным портретистом в Лондоне после Рейнольдса и Гейнсборо.
Cotman – Джон Селл Котман (1782–1842), английский пейзажист; принадлежал к
Норвичской школе.
Courbet – Гюстав Курбе (1819–1877), французский живописец, скульптор и график.
Сох – Дэвид Кокс (1793–1830), выдающийся английский пейзажист.
Crete – о-в Крит.
Crome, John – Джон Кром (1768–1821), английский художник-пейзажист.
Cupid – купидон.
Cuyp – Кейп, фамилия нескольких голландских художников: Беньямин Кейп (1612–1652),
Альберт Кейп (1620–1691).
D
David, Jacques Louis – Жак Луи Давид (1748–1825), французский живописец.
Daubigny – Шарль-Франсуа Добиньи (1817–1878), французский художник, мастер пейзажа,
примыкавший к барбизонской школе.
Daumier – Оноре Викторен Домье (1808–1879), французский литограф, живописец и
скульптор.
De Wint – Питер де Винт (1784–1849), английский пейзажист, голландец по происхождению.
Degas, Edgar – Эдгар Дега (1834–1917), французский художник-импрессионист.
Delacroix, Eugene – Эжен Делакруа (1798–1863), крупнейший французский художник,
представитель романтического направления в живописи.
Delft – г. Делфт.
“Les Demoiselles d’Avignon” – «Авиньонские девушки» .
Derain, Andre – Андрэ Дерен (1880–1954), французский художник, график, театральный
декоратор, скульптор, керамист.
Dionysus – Дионис, в греческой религии – бог плодородия и растительности, особенно –
виноградной лозы, бог вина, носитель цивилизации и миротворец; римлянами
отождествлялся с Вакхом (Bacchus).
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“Discourses” (“Discourses on Art”) – «Лекции об искусстве», курс лекций, прочитанный
Рейнольдсом в Королевской Академии с 1769 по 1790 г.
“Discus Thrower” – «Дискобол».
The Divine Mother – Богоматерь.
Dresden – г. Дрезден.
Dobson – Уильям Добсон (1610–1646), английский художник-портретист.
Dominica – о. Доминика.
Donatello – Донателло (1383/1386–1466), великий итальянский скульптор эпохи
Возрождения.
Drury Lane – Друри-Лейн, лондонский музыкальный театр ХVIII в.
Dufy, Raoul – Рауль Дюфи (1877–1953), французский художник, график, декоратор и
керамист; известность ему принесли изображения курортов, пляжей, скачек и регат.
Dürer, Albrecht – Альбрехт Дюрер (1471–1528), немецкий живописец, рисовальщик и
гравер, один из величайших мастеров западноевропейского искусства.
E
East Bergholt – Восточный Бергольт.
El Greco (Domenicos Theotocopouios) – Эль Греко (Доменико Теотокопули) (ок. 1541–1614),
испанский художник греческого происхождения, родился на острове Крит, находившемся
в то время под властью Венеции.
Ecole des Beax-Arts – Школа изящных искусств в Париже.
Evelyn, John – Джон Эвелин (1620–1706), английский писатель, автор мемуаров и ряда работ
по лесоводству и садоводству.
F
Fielding, Henry – Генри Филдинг (1707–1754), английский романист.
“The Fighting ‘Temeraire’” – «Последний рейс ‘Отважного’»; Temeraire франц. ‘Отважный’
(Смелый), английский корабль, прославившийся сражениями с французскими фрегатами во
время Семилетней войны 1798–1805 гг.
Flanders – Фландрия, историческая область в Западной Европе.
Fleet prison – Флитская тюрьма.
Florence – г. Флоренция.
The Foundling Hospital – Приют для найденышей (1739).
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Francesca, Piero della – Пьеро делла Франческа, итальянский живописец и математик, один
из величайших мастеров эпохи Раннего Возрождения (1420–1492).
Fuseli (Fusoli), Henry – Фузели Генри (1741–1825), английский портретист, представитель
раннего романтизма, ученик Рейнольдса, швейцарец по происхождению.
G
Gainsborough, Thomas – Томас Гейнсборо (1727–1788), английский живописец.
“The Gates of Hell” – «Врата ада».
Garrick, David – Дэвид Гарик (1717–1779), английский актер, театральный деятель,
драматург.
Gauguin, Paul – Поль Гоген (1848—1903), французский художник.
Ghent – г. Гент, город во Фландрии, в Бельгии.
Ghirlandaio – Гирландайо, семья итальянских художников и мозаичистов, живших
и работавших во Флоренции в XV–XVI вв. Cамый старший, Доменико (1449–1494), был
учителем Микеланджело.
Gibber, Colley – Колли Джиббер (1671–1757), английский актер, драматург и поэт.
“Gin Lane” – «Водочный переулок» (Переулок джина).
Giorgione – Джорджоне (1478–1511), венецианский художник эпохи Ренессанса.
Giotto – Джотто (ок. 1266 или 1276–1337), флорентийский художник и архитектор. По одной
из версий Джотто был учеником Чимабуэ.
Girtin – Томас Гертин (1773–1802), английский художник, мастер акварельного пейзажа.
Gleyre, Charles – Шарль Глейр (1808–1874), швейцарский художник; его студия была
знаменитым местом встречи импрессионистов.
Goldsmith, Oliver – Оливер Голдсмит (1728–1774) англо-ирландский писатель, поэт и
драматург.
Goya – Франсиско Хосе Гойя (1746–1828), выдающийся испанский живописец и график.
Grignion, Charles – Чарльз Гриньон (1716–1810), британский рисовальщик и гравер.
Guardi – Франческе Гварди (1712–1793), венецианский художник.
Guernica – г. Герника.
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