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Файл:Бизнес поведение. Основы основ для будущих психологов = Business Behaviour. Core Essentials for Future Psychologists. Учебное пособие по английскому я
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On the other hand, if the infant is neglected, it feels distressed, bad
and unlovable. These feelings represent the beginning of the development
of the self.
• Positive Outcome;
development of trust and belief in oneself and the ability to have a
worthwhile existence.
• Negative Outcome;
cautious, withdrawn, apathetic with an inability to trust.
6.2.2 Muscular-anal
The individual, having established trust, now moves on to develop a
sense of autonomy from its primary caregiver. Exercising its individuality
can lead the young child into conflict with its parents. If the child is allowed
to express its independence, then it learns to develop confidence in its
abilities.
If, however, the child is restricted or constantly punished, it develops
shame due to its failure to win approval.
• Positive Outcome;
belief in their ability to control their destiny.
• Negative Outcome;
doubt, dependence, lack of confidence, loss of self-esteem.
6.2.3 Locomotor-Genital
With a sense of trust and confidence, the child begins to explore its
environment. No stone is left unturned in the quest for answers to who,
what and why? Once again, if the child is encouraged (within limitations) it
will develop a positive outlook. However, rejection or criticism leads to
guilt.
• Positive Outcome;
initiative, creativity and imagination.
• Negative Outcome;
frustration, guilt and anxiety.
6.2.4 Latency
The child, having come through the first three challenges, now faces
school. With a need for industry, children go about learning and making
objects, looking for encouragement and approval from role models.
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• Positive Outcome;
enjoyment of work, feelings of accomplishment and pride.
• Negative Outcome;
develops sense of inferiority, withdraws.
6.2.5 Adolescence
Having survived the first four stages, the individual now actively
searches for identity. This quest involves active experimentation, relying on
peers and role models.
However, there can be problems. In seeking the approval of others,
adolescents can find that they have compromised their own values to that of
the group, leading to a loss of personal identity and the harbouring of
resentments.
Crucial to healthy adolescent development is the process of
emotional separation from parents. What is required at this turbulent time is
encouragement to follow and believe in one’s true self.
• Positive Outcome;
development of strong self-concept matched by a healthy self-esteem
in line with one’s ideal self.
• Negative Outcome;
confusion and frustration.
6.2.6 Young Adulthood
The individual now pursues long term relationships. If a sound
identity has been developed, he/she is now able to develop intimacy with
others.
• Positive Outcomes;
ability to disclose, communicate.
• Negative Outcomes;
defense mechanisms such as withdrawal or maintaining friendships
at arm’s length.
6.2.7 Adulthood
Questions are asked about their role as family leaders. What’s it all
about? Attitudes nag at traditional concerns for productivity and career
achievement.
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• Positive Outcomes;
Stage
Band
Challenges
1 Oral-Sensory
0 - 2 years
Trust vs Mistrust
2 Muscular-Anal
2 - 3 years
Autonomy vs Shame
3 Locomotor-Genital
3 - 5.5 years
Initiative vs Guilt
4 Latency
5-12 years
Industry vs Inferiority
5 Adolescence
12-22 years
Identity vs Role Confusion
6 Young Adulthood
22 - 30 years
Intimacy vs Isolation
7 Adulthood
30 - 50 years
Generativity vs Stagnation
8 Maturity
50 - death
Integrity vs Despair
belief in present patterns in terms of maintaining relationships and
passing on of wisdom.
• Negative Outcomes;
withdrawal, stagnation.
Figure 2.7 – The Challenges at Different Stages of Psycho-social Development
6.2.8 Maturity
This is where the person, having passed through all stages still
reasonably intact, can now look back and feel proud of their achievements;
content with their current role in life. However, if all stages have been
characterised by conflict, then the person now experiences anger and
hostility as they realise that life may have been meaningless.
• Positive Outcomes;
still contributing to life’s challenges, passing on experiences to help
others.
• Negative Outcomes;
despair, as an “it’s all too late to change" mentality sets in.
Figure 2.7 summarises the sort of challenges that the individual faces
at each stage.
6.3 Social Maturation at Work
Erikson stresses that every unresolved crisis has the potential to
contaminate successive stages. So unsuccessful encounters hinder our
ability to cope with current challenges and in fact will remain as unresolved
issues.
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Though Erikson’s theory still has considerable support, it does have
its critics. In particular, his research was based on the study of males, with
little analysis of women.
Some researchers also have problems with the notion that the eight
stages are necessarily maturational. They believe that they are totally
dependent upon the culture of that society and are not universal.
Do the hill tribes of Tibet for example, go through the same stages?
It is well known that African tribes do not pass through the identity crisis of
adolescents. Erikson agrees that social factors are at play, but argues that
there is also a strong innate influence. The question of Maturation versus
Environment still rages on.
6.3.1 Management Application
The notion that there is a timetable for social development linked to
a particular stage of life, is a useful tool in a manager’s attempts to
understand human behavior. Catering for these individual differences can
lead to employee satisfaction and increased productivity. Consider the
following workshop.
Workshop
•> With reference to the adult stages of Erikson’s theory, what
factors should be taken into account when selecting personnel for the
following job description?
- A sales representative promoting a new product requiring
extensive country travel.
- A marketing manager related to the above position.
- Someone to run a small storeroom, where management, with
confidence, allows the operation to run itself.
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6.3.2 Business Application
Marketers are also aware of the advantages of understanding
individual differences when it comes down to the successful marketing of
their products.
The fundamental philosophy of any marketer is to design a product
to suit the needs of the target market. Erikson’s theory provides useful
insight into these needs. All a marketer now has to do is convince the eight
different targets of Erikson’s model, that purchase of this product or service
will help them successfully through the stage they are experiencing.
For example, if you read between the lines, most advertisements
constantly try to remind us that use of their product will raise our selfesteem. Driving this car, using this make up, drinking this beer, etc. will
make you a better person. You will make more friends, be admired and your
confidence will soar. This message is appealing, for most of us, at some
time, need some help in overcoming the social maturation hurdles.
Products directed at Young Adulthood often appeal to affiliation
needs consistent with Erikson’s “intimacy versus isolation”. For example,
soft drink advertisements depict young adults having fun in groups.
Review Questions on the Topic
1. (a) Identify and comment on the main factors which influence
human behavior.
(b) What is the significance of individual differences for the
marketer, retailer or public relations professional?
2. (a) Why is the study of individual differences important in
marketing, advertising, retailing and public relation?
3. Give two examples of individual differences that play important
roles in the above areas.
4. Briefly discuss with your partners the main factors that influence
individual differences.
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Topic 3. Perception & Sensation
The nature versus nurture debate, covered in the second topic, is a
connecting theme that encompasses much of the topic of perception and
sensation. Followers of the nature side of the debate focus their attention on
the process of sensation. Adherents to the nurture side of the debate
concentrate on the process of perception.
In this topic, social behavior will be examined in the light of the
question; How do we know what things are?
Why is it that one person’s experience of an interview panel is
different from that of another’s? One interviewee can find a warm and
supporting environment, while another finds a cold and obstructive panel.
As a result of their individual perceptions, one person, during the
interview, will be expansive and promote themselves, while the other will
appear nervous and silent.
Each of us may have different perceptions of our shared
environment. A key point to the study of this topic is that the perceptions of
individuals are selectively organised.
An explanation of why we have these diverse and differing views of
our social environment is found in the study of perception.
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Before reading the texts try to answer the questions:
- What do the terms (perception, sensation, stimulus, sensory
receptors) mean?
- What features of perceptional process do you know?
- What do you know about interpersonal perception?
1. Definitions
The act of perception can be viewed as a sequential series of
processes; the processing of raw data from the environment by the sensory
receptors (sensation); the processing of raw data by the brain (sensation)
and the act of interpreting that data (perception).
We can see the distinct processes and their relationships in Figure
3.1. Let us now define the processes of sensation and perception as they
function in the perceptual system.
Figure 3.1 – The Perceptual System
1.1 Sensation
The perceptual system as a whole can be viewed as a system of
inputs and outputs. The physical process of receiving data from the
environment, the input, is categorized as sensation.
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Example:
As you deliver your speech, you hear the sounds of your audience
whispering to each other, shuffling their papers, and fidgeting in their
chairs. You see the lowered eyes and downcast heads of your audience. You
feel the hot wet perspiration trickle down your body and you smell the sickly
sweet aroma of coffee wafting from the back of the auditorium.
1.2 Perception
Perception, the output, is the mental act of selecting, organising and
interpreting that data and giving specific meaning to the social
environment.
Example:
Following on from the example above: the audience, you perceive, is
bored with your speech presentation and you need to take steps to reestablish their attention.
2. Features of the Process of Sensation
2.1 The Stimulus and the Sensory Receptors
Each of the sensory receptors react to the physical energy contained
within that stimulus. For example; the eye responds to the electromagnetic
energy in the light. The ear is stimulated by sound wave energy in sound.
Once a receptor is triggered, information is then transported by neurons
(nerve cells) to the brain. This process of sensation is illustrated in Figure
3.2.
Figure 3.2 – The Process of Sensation
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It is the sensory receptors, in a sense, that connect us to our
environment. Without them we could not embrace an environment of love
and friendship, flee from danger, or triumph over the problems that our
world throws up. They are the means by which we have an awareness of the
changing world around us. But it is a specific, limited awareness.
The information received by the sensory receptors and the brain does
not, as was once thought, take the form of a picture or photographic copy of
our environment. Our sensory receptors have a limited capacity to deliver
the environment to us wholly as it is at that moment, underpins the point
that our sensory experience is not necessarily the best judge of what goes
on in the world.
Workshop
•> The following quiz highlights the limited capacity of the
sensory receptors to record our environment. Indicate yes or no in the
list provided.
Can the naked eye see atoms, magnetic fields and gravity?
yes□no
Does a partly submerged straight stick appear straight to our eyes?
yes□no
Can a forward moving vehicle appear to be moving backwards when
captured on film or video?
yes□no
Does our sense of taste and smell ever diminish?
yes□no
When you first dive into a bubbling surf, it feels cold, yet within
minutes you feel comfortable. Has the water temperature changed?
yes□no
To confuse us even more, the different sensory receptors provide us
with alternative views of the environment. You can test this proposition by
comparing drawings of objects from the world of touch and sight.
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Furthermore, each of the sensory receptors have built-in limitations or
Receptor
Perception
Limitations
Eyes (sight)
• Light waves Colours: redgreen, yellow- blue, blackwhite
• e.g. colour blindness,
retina’s blind spot
• Relativities of the brightness
and strength of colours
Mouth (taste)
•Tastes: sweet, salty, sour,
bitter
• Misinterpretations due to
prior intake: (e.g. smoking) &
advancing age
• Personal tastes
Nose (smell)
• Smells: musky, flowery,
pepper minty, ether like,
camphor like, pungent,
putrid
• Molecular structures
that are too small or too large to
fit the nasal receptors
• Some food is tasted rather
than smelt: (e.g. chocolate)
Skin (touch)
•Touch: pain, pressure,
cold, heat
• Cold spots outnumber hot
spots 4:1. Extremes of heat are
perceived as cold
Ears (hearing)
• Sound waves:
• Low tones-low sensitivity
• Low speed of sound waves
means object/event seen before
heard
restrictions on their capacity to record the environment as it is (see
Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3 – Limitations of the Sensory Perceptions
One of the principle limiting features of the sensory receptors is
supplied by the notion of thresholds. The absolute threshold refers to the
minimum amount of energy required for the sensory receptors to detect
data in their environment.
We will find the absolute threshold by the following method: if a
person faces no physical stimulus energy, then they will have no sensation
of the object or event. However, if we continue to increase the physical
energy stimulus minutely, then at some point in time, the person will have
the sensation of the object or event.
Example:
Anything below the heat energy of a butterfly landing on our skin
would not be detected and therefore, as far as our skin and our tactile
system is concerned, such an event has not taken place
2.2 The Absolute Threshold
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