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Файл:Бизнес поведение. Основы основ для будущих психологов = Business Behaviour. Core Essentials for Future Psychologists. Учебное пособие по английскому я
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In either case, the meaning of the event stems directly from the past
unconscious experiences of the candidate.
The Psychological School of thought states that it is essential that we
know ourselves. That is, to be aware of the presence and sources of our
anxieties. For it is only in this state that a more rational approach to life will
emerge.
5.2 Theoretical Assumptions
The central idea of the Psychodynamic School, is the notion that we
give meaning to, or code symbolically, the environment of objects and
events, with our unconscious experiences.
We make sense of our environment through our unconscious.
And because it is unconscious, we do not have direct access to its meanings
and workings.
The only indirect road, according to the Psychodynamic School, is
through the journey of childhood memories. They are reached by the
analysis of dreams, slips of the tongue and pen, and via the technique of free
association with which we will deal more fully in the module on
Personality.
5.3 Using the Psychodynamic Approach
Meaning and behavior are found in the unconscious of the
individual. In other words, a person’s behavior only makes sense in
reference to their ‘unconscious.’ Therefore, the key to understanding
people’s behavior is found in the manner in which they symbolically
code their environment.
It is as if the ‘unconscious’ speaks through our behavior. We
behave, as it were, according to our unconscious states.
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Workshop
In the previous example, the interviewer behaves in a certain
negative manner towards the candidate because of her unconscious
experience. She does not select the ideal candidate because his presence has
a particular meaning for her. She cannot assign a new and fresh meaning to
the candidate until she has eradicated the original source of her fear.
•> What could be some of the possible sources of her unconscious
fears concerning the candidate?
•> Give your own examples to illustrate the topic.
6. Psychological Method & Research Techniques
6.1 The Psychological Method
The principal aim of psychological research is to observe, explain
and predict behavior. The first step in the research program is to locate
possible causes of behavior. A theory which predicts the cause-effect
relationship, is then constructed. This theory, which is known as a
hypothesis, is then tested. The various research techniques used to test a
hypothesis are examined in the next section. The last step in the program is
to analyse the data and report the findings.
Example:
Brown & Harris (1978) set out to investigate whether the presence
of social support networks would protect urban women exposed to
significant life stress from attacks of depression.
The hypothesis:
Social support for women (cause) decreases depression (effect).
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6.2 Research Techniques
Psychologists use a variety of research techniques to test
hypotheses:
• naturalistic observation
• surveys
• case studies
• correlation
• experimentation
6.2.1 Naturalistic Observation
Psychologists observe behavior in the natural environment. In this
type of program, the psychologist’s aim is to describe the behavior of the
individual(s) and the possible contributing forces from the environment.
6.2.2 Surveys
Sample populations are asked a series of questions regarding their
behavior and environment. The answers are then tabulated and analysed.
Generally, this form of research is used when direct observation is
inappropriate, as in the Brown & Harris (1978) study quoted earlier.
6.2.3 Case Studies
When information on mental states cannot be accessed by the above
methods, psychoanalysts rely on their clients’ own re-telling of their life
histories.
6.2.4 Correlation
Correlation research involves statistically establishing a causal link
between two events; ie a variation in one event brings about an equal
variation in the other. It is expressed as; if X is..., then Y is. For example,
there appears to be a correlation between high sexual satisfaction and high
marital satisfaction (Weiten, 1990).
The problem with the correlation method is that correlation is no
guarantee of causation. In the example above, it may well be the case that
high marital satisfaction is causing high sexual satisfaction.
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It may also be the case that the correlated situation is caused by some
third unknown variable, such as shared values and beliefs between the
couples.
6.2.5 Experimentation
Experimental investigators attempt to establish a causal relationship
in a controlled setting, between variables that have been artificially isolated.
Example:
Albert Bandura (Roth, 1991), a learning theorist, concerned about
the impact of violent television programs on children, placed children in a
laboratory. He then broke the children into two groups. One group was
exposed to non-violent TV material (control group) and the other to strong
levels of violence on TV (experimental group). After the children were
shown the TV shows, they were encouraged to play with their toys and each
other. The levels of violent aggression in play was recorded for each group.
The children exposed to violence on TV were found to play more
aggressively than the children from the control group.
Review Questions on the Topic
1. (a) Give a brief outline of five major schools of thought of
psychology.
(b) Is it the forces in the environment or the individual that
determines behavior?
Give a business example to illustrate your answer.
2. Identify the subject area of psychology.
3. List and describe the methods used by psychologists to analyse
behavior.
4. Are psychological investigations value free? Provide examples of
the research techniques used by psychologists to support your answer.
5. Explain how psychology aids in the understanding of business
behavior.
6. Describe the research methods used in the study of business
behavior. Illustrate the most productive ones with your own examples.
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Topic 2. Individual Development
In the first topic we looked at the various psychological approaches
that attempt to explain human behavior.
The Biological School emphasises the importance of physiological
factors, while the Behaviorists suggest the role of stimuli in the
environment. The Cognitivists build on this notion, adding that behavior is
based on the way an individual perceives this information. The Humanists
relate behavior to the quest of reaching full potential. Finally, the
Psychodynamic theorists suggest that our behavior is influenced by
unconscious forces.
No matter which approach you support, you may notice that within
all five schools of thought, there are underlying factors that are
common to all.
For example, our development is influenced to an extent by heredity
and by the environment. Behavior can also be explained by the stage in life
the person is passing through. How often have you heard, “Don’t worry
about them, it’s just a stage they’re going through?”
It is these factors that we will look at in this topic and the individual
differences that result. This is important. The identification of these
variations, combined with an understanding explains to us why they behave
in such a particular way.
Before reading the texts try to answer the questions:
- What factors influence human’s behavior?
- What examples can prove it?
- What individual differences can be resulted from these factors?
- What is your personal opinion based on the knowledge acquired?
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1. Heredity Factors
Attribute
Individual Differences
Physical
Observable tangible features
Height, Weight, Eye Colour, Hair Colour
Psychomotor
Physical abilities
Coordination ot Limbs, Reflexes, Stamina, Balance
Physiological
Functioning of body tissue
Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, Metabolic Rate
Cognitive
Brain's thinking processes
Ability with Words & Figures, Memory, Spatial
Configuration, Problem Solving
Emotional
Personality characteristics
Mood, Drives, Temperament, Arousal Levels
1.1 Definition
Heredity is a term used to describe the biological influence of our
parents. These attributes can be divided into five broad areas;
• Physical (e.g. height)
• Psychomotor (e.g. coordination)
• Physiological (e.g. blood disorders)
• Cognitive (e.g. intelligence)
• Emotional (e.g. some aspects of personality)
1.2 Process
The mechanism for this transfer lies with our twenty-three pairs of
chromosomes. Located on these structures are thousands of genes which
carry all the attributes mentioned above. To ensure variation in the gene
pool, each parent passes on only half the amount of genetic material (23
chromosomes). This process ensures that no two individuals are alike.
Figure 2.1 - Individual Differences Arising from Heredity Factors
1.3 Individual Differences
Each gene carries thousands of genetic codes, which result in a
number of characteristics which contribute to the unique qualities of the
individual. Some of these attributes are listed in Figure 2.1.
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1.4 Heredity at Work
1.4.1 Management Application
Managers and administrators for many years have searched for
productivity formulas. One such equation to emerge is as follows:
Performance = Knowledge x Skill x Ability x Motivation x
Support
This suggests that if a manager wants to get the best out of a person,
then that individual must not only have the knowledge to do the task, but
also be able to put it into practice (skill). The third element of the
equation is Heredity based-how good is the person with this skill
(ability)? In addition, the person must want to do the task (motivation).
Finally, management has a responsibility to provide the opportunity for the
person to succeed (support). So how does heredity influence this
productivity formula?
Workshop
•> Indicate in the spaces below, which of the following terms are
being discussed.
knowledge, skills, ability, motivation and support.
If I was a sports coach I would want my players to understand the
rules of the game (•*_____ ) and be keen (•*_____) to apply them on the
field (•*_____). But I would choose only those that were the best in that
position (•*_____).
Some people are just naturally gifted while others have to work a lot
harder to achieve the same results. Those that are fortunate to have this
ability at birth can thank Heredity. If however, you have to train hard to get
to this stage, then it is a result of the Environment (•*_____).
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1.4.2 Business Application
Marketers also utilise the concept of Heredity when selling their
products. As you are aware, one of the techniques of marketers is to cluster
people into groups with similar needs. They then design products to satisfy
the wants of these groups.
Grouping people based on Heredity differences is a useful way of
identifying segments. For example, people who are very tall (large suits), or
have health disorders such as obesity (diet foods) and hemophilia (clotting
medicine).
As we know, marketers are capable of exaggeration, and often try to
convince us we have needs that don’t really exist. They will use Heredity in
an attempt to sell their products whether there is a definite linkage or not.
Example:
How often are we advised to buy high quality stereos because we
have been told of our advanced audible sensitivity? The sales person is
suggesting that we are privileged to have what is termed a musical ear and
to reach our full potential, we really deserve this product.
Workshop
•> You are looking for a pair of joggers for a fun run. As you cast
your eyes over the multitude of shoes, the sales person points to a brand
well beyond your budget.
In which statement is the salesperson suggesting the influence of
Heredity factors?
- This product is not for your average fun runner, but for those gifted
athletes who don’t want to compromise.
- If you are going to put all that effort into the event, then you could
use some additional help.
•> Give your own examples to illustrate the topic. Work with your
partner, make up dialogue.
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2. Environmental Forces
2.1 Overview of Environmental Forces
2.1.1 Definition
The Environment refers to all non-genetic forces that influence our
behavior. Though this list is extensive, for convenience we can classify
them according to the categories in the following diagram:
Figure 2.2 – Environmental Agents that Influence Behavior
2.1.2 Heredity versus Environment
The significance of the Environment upon behavior is important, in
that it builds on from where Heredity left off. Nature (Heredity) is the
blueprint of what we can be and nurture (Environment) allows it to happen.
You could say we are winners or victims through experience.
It is important to realise that this division is not clear cut. Separating
life forces into two distinct groups, though superficially attractive, can
become contentious. The problem is over the degree of impact of either
nature (Heredity) or nurture (Environment). This is a difficult question in
that it is not easy to prove the degree of involvement between the two. The
best approach suggests that Heredity lays the foundation of human
development, which is then modified by favourable or unfavourable
environmental forces.
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3. The Process of Environmental Forces
The influence of socialisation factors upon our development is a
complicated process and is explained by using a variety of theories. For
example, each psychological approach discussed in Topic One offers insight
into why we act the way we do.
The remaining topics explain the reasons behind our behavior.
However, for the purpose of this topic we will restrict our discussion to an
overview of these processes, especially the environmental agents.
3.1 Culture
Culture refers to the shared values, beliefs and attitudes of society.
Example:
Australians can be characterised by a number of beliefs such as;
love of the outdoors, emphasis on leisure, sports orientation, casual
attitude, support for the underdog and standing up for what you believe in.
Each of these beliefs indirectly influences the socialisation agents
listed in Figure 2.2. For example, your parents encourage fair play, integrity
and honesty because “that’s the way things are done around here.”
3.2 Sub-culture
Sub-culture includes religious, ethnic and minority groups. They act
as reference points for many individuals. You behave a certain way because
it is the custom of your nationality.
3.3 Parents
Our development is greatly influenced by our parents (our primary
care givers). Through this extensive interaction, we learn how to adapt to
our world and other human beings.
3.3.1 Attachment
The bonding between the infant and mother (as primary care giver),
represents the development of communications and lays the foundation for
all future social relationships.
The quality of the attachment, whether secure or insecure, affects the
quality of future interactions; e.g. the ability to show affection.
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