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Файл:Бизнес поведение. Основы основ для будущих психологов = Business Behaviour. Core Essentials for Future Psychologists. Учебное пособие по английскому я
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3.3.2 Child Rearing
Child rearing refers to the influences resulting from parent, child
interactions. The search for rewards, or fear of punishment, social
modelling and role play, all influence our development.
Firstly, this process impacts upon our ability to develop selfdiscipline. Secondly, it offers balance and independence. Through child
rearing we also learn how to conform appropriately to group norms (group
values).
3.4 Family
Within a short period of time, an infant’s growth is influenced by its
immediate family. Brothers and sisters, followed by relatives, start to
impact upon the child’s development. This is achieved by teaching the child
appropriate social behavior such as empathy, justice and adherence to group
norms.
3.5 Peers
By the age of two, the child is starting to interact with other infants.
Child play is a natural stage of social development where the young
individual learns role taking, empathy and emotional expression. This
enhances imagination and social skills, resulting in creativity and self consciousness. The interaction with peers continues through life’s stages.
3.6 School
By age five the child will probably be preparing for school. In spite
of what we may think of this event, it will probably serve as an enforcer to
all the above processes. School is especially important for the transmission
of cultural values and norms. It is also a useful resource for the development
of individuality, friendship, peer social life, moral development and sexual
relations.
3.7 Work
Though most of us at times believe work has one simple purpose, to
pay the bills, in actual fact our involvement with this formal structure has
profound effects upon our social development. At work we consolidate all
that we have learned by practising skills acquired through life, as well as
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exploring new ones. People, who have been immersed for many years in
one type of job, may find it reinforces their behavior. For example, teachers
can be prone to directing others, while accountants can be very thorough,
ensuring accuracy at all costs.
3.8 Situation
There is one other factor that shapes all the influences so far
discussed. Unfavourable life experiences, such as time pressures, financial
constraints, physical mishaps etc, complete the ever encompassing
socialising effects of the environment.
In other words, situational variables act as a filter. The individual
differences developed as a result of the above processes are influenced by
the action of favourable or unfavourable life events.
For example, you may have had all the attributes to become a fine
athlete, but had this potential reduced by an unfortunate accident.
Workshop
•> Illustrate each of the Environmental Forces with a vivid example.
•> Determine the three most powerful forces. Give arguments to
prove your answer.
- Work with your partners in a discussion group. Develop the idea.
- Be ready to defend your point of view or criticize the partners’
opinion giving relevant arguments.
- Try to be convincing and polite. Respect the partners’ opinion.
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4. Individual Differences Arising from Environmental Forces
Physical:
Low
Moderate
High
Height
□ □ □
Eye Colour
□ □ □
Psychomotor:
Coordination
□ □ □
Reflexes
□ □ □
Physiological:
Blood Pressure
□ □ □
Heart Rate
□ □ □
Cognitive:
Word Ability
□ □ □
Spatial Ability
□ □ □
Emotional:
Mood
□ □ □
Arousal Levels
□ □ □
What impact does the environment have on our behavior? Earlier we
noted that heredity gave rise to various individual differences. These are
then modified by life’s forces.
Task: For each of the following individual differences, rate the
influence of the environment by indicating either; low, moderate, or high.
In your analysis, you probably suggested that the environment
affects each attribute. The extent of this influence is outlined as follows.
4.1 Physical Attributes
Height, weight etc are all shaped to some degree, by the action of the
environment. Weight for example can be modified by corrective surgery, as
well as by diet and exercise. This is a result of situational factors.
4.2 Psychomotor Attributes
As with physical features, an individual’s motor skills, like coordination and balance, can be altered by environmental processes. With the
appropriate training and motivation, individuals can improve on their
attributes.
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Example:
If you never received encouragement from your parents and were
constantly ridiculed by your peers, your motivation could be substantially
impaired. So the next time you fail at sport, don’t blame your genes, instead
rethink your approach!
4.3 Physiological Attributes
Just as there are many different shapes and sizes with the physical
dexterity to match, there is a “smorgasbord” of physiological variations.
This is often the key difference between top athletes. Their physique is the
same, but the body functions at different rates. For example, Sebastian Coe,
the world famous middle distance runner, has a set of lungs remarkable in
their size. Sure, this is a result of heredity, but by the interaction of a
favourable environment along with a genetic advantage, he managed to
outclass the world in that particular sport.
4.4 Cognitive Attributes
An individual’s mental processing also improves with practice
(situational), especially when combined with a positive attitude (socialising
agents). As with psychomotor development, favourable nurturing during the
individual’s early years will enhance cognitive ability.
For example, this notion is behind the current attempts of the
Education Department to alter the attitude of parents, peers and teachers by
encouraging females to study non-traditional subjects such as science.
4.5 Emotional Attributes
We have suggested that attributes can be altered if the person not
only has favourable situational experiences, but also has the motivation to
change. This desire for improvement is a component of the individual’s
personality and as such, can be considered to be an emotional attribute.
For this pervasive reason, emotional development is arguably the
most significant factor for an individual wanting to reach their full potential.
Without the will to succeed, there is little chance of altering the other
attributes. In addition to these changes, an emotionally healthy person is
able to get the most out of life’s challenges.
The chart below suggests how emotional development may affect
one’s ability to make the most of life.
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A Child Reared With
(Process)
Learns to
(Behavior)
A Child Reared With
(Process)
Learns to
(Behavior)
Tolerance
=
Be Patient
Acceptance
=
Love Self
Encouragement
=
Be Confident
Friendship
=
Love Others
Praise
=
Appreciate
Criticism
=
Condemn
Fairness
=
Act Justly
Aggression
=
Fight
Security
=
Have Faith
Ridicule
=
Withdraw
Approval
=
Like Self
Shame
=
Feel Guilty
Figure 2.3 – The Impact of Emotional Development on an Individual's Behavior
Workshop
•> Do you think it is possible for socialisation agents of the
environment (such as a primary care giver) to influence physical
differences?
- If so; how?
•> Discuss with your partner how emotional development can
affect one’s ability to make the most of life. The chart above can be of
great help to your talk.
- Try to give as many vivid examples as possible.
•> Below is a typical tragic case we all know too well. What part
of Peters behavior can be explained by Heredity and what part can be
explained by environmental factors? Try to specify which elements are
at work, ie type of socialisation forces and their resultant behaviors.
Peter was brought up by in a very strict family. During his early
years he was subjected to physical violence from family and peers. As a
result, he learned that to get what he wanted, he had to take it by the only
means he knew-physical force. This came all too easily to Peter, helped by
his strength and large frame.
This approach soon got him into trouble with school and later the
police. After an aggravated assault conviction, he was institutionalised and
in this environment, his aggressive behavior was reinforced. By the time he
was released from juvenile detention he was ready for his first big crime.
Peter wasn’t particularly smart. He had shown no interest at school,
so his ability to master an armed robbery was restricted. Though he was
quite clever with his hands, planning the crime got the better of him.
The police had no trouble tracking him down, as Peter would always
hang out with his ex-jail-mates down at the local pub.
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Heredity________________________________________________
__________
Environment____________________________________________
__________
5. Maturation Forces
In the discussion on the Environment, we outlined some of the
elements that combine to influence our behavior. This process is inferred by
many as a sequence of programmed stages, not simply a haphazard affair.
The notion that behavior is the result of a timetable of events has
interesting implications, in that identifying each of these stages will give
insight into why we act the way we do.
5.1 Definition
Maturation focuses on the changes that result from aging and
development, rather than from environmental forces such as family and
other socialisation influences.
The difference between Maturation and Heredity is that though they
both are genetic, heredity is restricted to the biological and physiological
influence of the family, whereas Maturation is an overall characteristic of
the species and independent of the family tree.
Earlier, it was suggested that a sports coach would be interested in
recruiting players who have natural talent (Heredity). Apart from
environmental agents, other factors need to be taken into consideration.
For example, how old is this player? A person may not be at their
peak simply because they have not reached physical maturity.
Think of the charts covering the walls of your local gymnasium, that
give the safe heart rate while working out. The figures show that your
physical state is dependent on your age.
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The point is, that your stage in life determines many limits to your
potential. The notion of development within a set sequence, is not confined
to fitness alone.
Notice how people generally reach similar milestones at roughly the
same time; teething, walking, talking, puberty, menopause and natural
death. These processes fall within the domain of Maturation.
5.2 Types of Maturation
Maturation occurs on three general dimensions; i.e. physical,
cognitive and social. The development of each dimension results from the
interaction of the Environment and genetic (internal) forces.
The relationship of this interaction is shown in the diagram
Figure 2.4.
Environment Social maturation
Figure 2.4 – The Relative Influence of Heredity & Environment
on the Various Dimensions of Maturation
For example, teething (physical maturation) is almost entirely
dependent on genetic factors. However, learning to speak (cognitive
maturation), is heavily influenced by environmental forces, such as
encouragement from parents.
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5.3 Physical Maturation (Biological)
Stage (age)
Individual Differences
Sensory-Motor (0-2)
Reflex action to sensations eg.
grasping/sucking. A belief that objects
that can't be seen don't exist.
Pre-Operational (2-6)
Awareness of the nature of objects:
However limited thought patterns
focusing on self.
Concrete-Operational (7-11)
Growing awareness of intangibles
(concepts).
Formal-Operational (12-up)
Able to use abstract thinking in problem
solving.
This refers to any physical change that results from the aging
process. It is least dependent on the input of environmental factors.
Individual differences include such outcomes as teething, walking,
physical growth, puberty, menopause and death.
5.3.1 Business Application
Marketers focus on the individual differences that result from the
biological maturation process, to sell products. For example, they can
suggest that using their products will enhance or defer (dependent on the
need of the target market), the onset of that particular maturation phase.
5.4 Cognitive Maturation
Jean Piaget (1932) identified four successive cognitive stages in
human development. Although each level is distinct, the length of each
stage is dependent upon a number of factors and is best seen as a continuum
(overlap). A summary of his model is as follows.
Figure 2.5 – Individual Differences Arising from Cognitive Maturation
Whilst Piaget’s model is certainly useful, some researchers feel it is
incomplete. They argue that adults experience additional stages of
intellectual development beyond the four phases identified. Other concerns
include that the model is too rigid, as it does not allow for variations in
development or that an individual can experience two stages at once.
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5.4.1 Management Application
Most educational activities for children relate to the stages of
Piaget’s model. Teachers have been avid practitioners of his four steps and
have designed school activities within the framework of his model.
5.4.2 Business Application
Marketers have also used Piaget’s framework. This can be seen in
the design of children’s games which take into account the child’s stage of
development. The recommended age group is usually indicated on the
packaging.
6. Social Maturation
Understanding that our development is not just confined to notions
of intellectual growth, researchers have been active in identifying other
behavioural aspects associated with our life cycle.
Have you ever wondered why people’s attitudes change as they get
older?
On reflection, you would probably recognise that we pass through a
number of stages. In our teens we tend to be active in experimentation; in
our twenties we are concerned with career growth. We eventually settle
with a mate and become family orientated. This is followed by a period of
soul searching in our forties. By our fifties, we often realise that its a
downhill run and there is a tendency to ease up on life’s challenges. Our
remaining years are characterised by a search for security and affiliation.
The emphasis is not so much on long terms goals but in getting satisfaction
from daily routines.
These casual observations have received a considerable amount of
attention from researchers. In the following discussion, we will look at
some of the more popular approaches. However, before we do, it is useful to
consider the concept of “self’ as a gauge on the psychological results of the
encounter between the individual and the environment.
6.1 Concept of Self
This refers to the awareness the individual has towards their
psychological being. It is composed of three dimensions; ie self-concept
(what we represent), self-esteem (how we rate this) and ideal self (what we
would like to be). These are shown in the diagram below. If all three are in
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harmony, then the person has a sense of emotional balance. If they are out
of harmony, then emotional conflict can occur. For example, if the
individual does not like who they represent (gap between self and selfesteem), the person develops anxiety, with the degree of anxiety being
proportional to the extent of this gap.
Figure 2.6 – The Concept of Self
6.2 Eriksons Psychosocial Development Theory
You may recall that Freud’s Psychodynamic theory (discussed in the
opening module) highlights a series of events that confront the individual.
The results of these encounters influence personality. These are stages of
development and therefore represent Social Maturation forces.
Erikson (1963), building on the work of Freud, modified and
extended these phases to include adults. Like Freud, Erikson believes that in
passing successfully through these eight stages, we will develop a healthy
self-concept. This in turn induces personality growth which ultimately
shapes our behavior.
6.2.1 Oral Sensory Stage
You probably know that the early years have a significant impact on
the development of personality. Erikson’s model explains this well. An
infant is bom without a sense of self. It perceives itself to be an extension of
the primary caregiver (mother). It sees itself mirrored in the caregiver’s
eyes.
Thus facial expressions of love, followed by warmth and food, lead
the infant to feel comfortable, good and lovable.
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