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Файл:Mind Matters English for Clinical Psychologists. Учебное пособие
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TEMPERAMENT
Through most of human history, it has been assumed that people are
divided into four basic personality types, or "temperaments" (the Latin word
temperament means “mixture, proportionality”). The great Greek physician
Hippocrates made the first description of temperament in 400 BC. He named
the four temperaments "Melancholic”, "Sanguine", "Choleric", and "Phlegmatic"
after various human body fluids which he believed influenced personality. These
fluids were blood, bladder, mucus and black bladder.
Thought Hippocrates' body-fluids theory turned out to be a dead end, his
observations about human temperament were very accurate indeed. The vast
majority of people tend to have one particular temperament. True, there are
some people, which have features of two or more temperaments.
Over the years, a great number of scientists worked on this problem and
several different classifications have been proposed. So, there is the most
common classification of the four temperaments.
Sanguine is a strong, steady, alive man, he has the raised activity and is
very vigorous and efficient. Sanguine is actively accepted for new business and
can work hard without tiredness for a long time. Such type of personality easily
converges with people and quickly gets used to the new conditions.
As well as sanguine choleric is a strong and lively type of personality. But
he is rather unbalanced, unrestrained and impatient. High activity and good
spirits can quickly change into tiredness and irritation. Choleric is hot-tempered
that’s why he often has conflicts with people.
Phlegmatic is a strong, balanced and inert type. It is difficult to make him
laugh or angry. He remains quiet at the large troubles. Phlegmatic has great
patience and self-control. The lack is his inertness due to which he hardly
switches his attention and adapts to new surroundings.
Melancholic is weak and unbalanced. Usually he is shy and sensitive. The
smallest difficulty forces him to lower his hands. However in habitual
atmosphere melancholic can successfully cope with any tasks.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following
personality types, made the first description, human body fluids, have features
of two or more temperaments, the raised activity, accepted for new business,
converge with people, change into, hot-tempered, remains quiet, adapts to new
surroundings, to lower his hands, weak and unbalanced, habitual atmosphere.
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2. Write down the sentences in a notebook and mark each statement as T (True)
or F (False) according to the text. Correct the false statements using your own
words
1. There are four basic personality types, or temperaments.
2. The great Greek physician Hippocrates made the first description of
temperament in 500 BC.
3. All people tend to have one particular temperament.
4. Sanguine is a strong but unbalanced type.
5. Choleric is hot-tempered that’s why he often has conflicts with people.
6. The only lack of phlegmatic is his impatience.
7. Melancholic is weak and unbalanced type of personality.
3. Insert the missing words and write down the sentences in a notebook
1. Greek physician Hippocrates made … in 400 BC.
2. Sanguine is … for new business.
3. As well as sanguine choleric is … of personality.
4. Phlegmatic … at the large troubles.
5. … forces melancholic to lower his hands.
4. Find in the text sentences with these words and translate them
Human body fluids, vigorous, hot-tempered, inert type, weak.
5. Sum up the contents of the text by answering the following questions
1. How many basic personality types are people divided into?
2. When did the great Greek physician Hippocrates make the first description of
temperament?
3. Hippocrates named the four temperaments after various human body fluids,
didn’t he?
4. What are the main features of sanguine?
5. What are the differences between choleric and sanguine?
6. What is the lack of phlegmatic?
7. Which type of personality is weak and unbalanced?
Read the text and write the summary
How to Find Calm in 10 Everyday Stressful Situations
Experts offer physical and mental strategies
to soothe your stress and anxiety
There’s no way around it: Stress is a fact of life. Between your kids, work,
and relationships, it can seem like there’s always something new to worry
about. And while altogether eliminating anxiety might be wishful thinking,
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having a plan in place to deal with those daily stressors can at least stop them
from throwing your whole day off course. To aid your quest for calm, we’ve
enlisted four wellness experts for this guide to relaxing your nerves in 10
common angst-producing situations.
1) You have such a busy day ahead that you’re feeling underwater before it
even begins. The Calming Strategy: “When you’re feeling overwhelmed, it
becomes difficult to take things one step at a time,” says Anne Weisman, Ph.D.,
director of well-being and integrative medicine at the University of Nevada in
Las Vegas. One way to center yourself is to acknowledge and welcome your
allotted tasks. “Pretend that ‘the overwhelm’ is in a chair across from you, and
ask it what it’s doing there,” Weisman recommends. Grab a piece of paper and
write down what your anxiety is telling you, and then continue asking questions
and writing answers until it has tired itself out.
Now read back what you’ve written. With your responsibilities listed out
on the page, instead of piled up in your head, you have a checklist of duties to
tackle one by one. Finally, to avoid getting sidetracked, try an adaptogen like
Arete Adaptogens Shroomy Mushroom Energy Root Strength Powder, which is
designed to support your energy and keep you focused, with less anxietyinducing caffeine than coffee.
2) You’re so nervous about a work presentation that your stomach is doing
backflips. The Calming Strategy: As counterintuitive as this sounds, nerves
before a presentation aren’t inherently bad—too little excitement can make you
lethargic and uninspiring. But to ensure your confidence remains high, start
preparing several weeks ahead by visualizing what the task will be like, picturing
the room and the other participants. If you feel anxiety flaring up, stop and take
a deep breath before trying again. “Mentally rehearsing this way allows your
brain to rewire itself to associate presenting with relaxation, rather than
anxiety,” says Craig Kain, Ph.D., a licensed psychologist and psychotherapist in
Long Beach, California.
An hour before you present, give yourself time to enjoy your
surroundings. Listen to music, talk to a loved one, or sip a glass of water with
Bach Rescue Remedy, a calming flower essence. Then, immediately beforehand,
do four rounds of box breathing: Inhale slowly while counting to four, hold your
breath while counting to four, and then exhale while counting to four.
3) You have a party to attend, but you get jumpy around a lot of people.
The Calming Strategy: Social anxiety before big gatherings is far from
uncommon, especially since the pandemic. To calm your nerves, “do what’s
called soft-belly breathing before the event, or in a bathroom at the event,”
Weisman says. Sit comfortably, and either close your eyes or relax your gaze.
Breathe in through your nose and think “soft,” then exhale through your mouth
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and think “belly.” “This exercise naturally calms the nervous system and helps
you return your awareness to the present moment,” she says. Once you’re
calmer, add visualization. Who’s with you at the party? What are you wearing?
Is there food? What does it look and smell like? Manifest the party you want to
be at.
4) You need to have a difficult conversation with a friend, and you can’t
stop thinking about all the different ways it could go wrong. The Calming
Strategy: Visualizing potential outcomes when you’re anticipating an event is
normal. “It’s the mark of an intelligent person,” says Shaun S. Nanavati, Ph.D.,
cofounder and chief science officer of the anxiety app AQ. Yet anxiety can lead
to “catastrophizing,” where you start envisioning the worst possible outcome.
To prevent this, visualize a safe space in which the conversation can take place.
“Engage your senses internally, so that you notice the time of day and the light,
sensations, and sounds,” Nanavati says. Then detach yourself from the image in
your mind, so you’re seeing it in the third person, like a film director watching
two people talking. Ask yourself how you would direct your character in a way
that creates a positive mood for the scene.
5) You pick up your phone to check something. Before you know it, you’re
doom-scrolling through your social media feeds, and becoming ever more
existentially fearful. The Calming Strategy: While social media’s addictive nature
can easily hijack your attention, you can break this habit—and even feel better
about the occasional relapse. First, turn off your phone for 15 minutes to reset
your mind. Then, to prevent yourself from returning to such a heightened state
of dependence on your screen, schedule specific times during the day for social
media breaks. If possible, go for a walk in nature without your phone to
reconnect with the real world around you. Most important, don’t blame yourself
for being attached to your phone. It’s something everyone is dealing with, and
can only be addressed by finding positive alternatives.
6) Your parents are struggling with their health, your kids are having issues
at school, and on top of it all, your dog is sick. You’re being pulled in every
direction. The Calming Strategy: Remember how you’re always told on airplanes
to place an oxygen mask on your own face before helping others in an
emergency? The same rule applies in daily life. “If you’re putting everybody else
first and not taking care of yourself, you won’t be able to take care of others,”
says Lienna Wilson, Psy.D., a licensed psychologist in Princeton, New Jersey. So
plan time for self-care habits like meditating, exercising, or getting together with
a friend. Then, and only then, take stock of what you need to do for others.
Also, while you can’t predict life’s twists and turns, you can organize
them. Keeping a calendar allows you to proactively spread out your caretaking
responsibilities: It’s better to take care of one person every other day than three
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people in one day. And if you’re still having trouble de-escalating, consider
snacking on Olly Goodbye Stress gummies, which contain a blend of ingredients
meant to mellow you out.
7) You had a fight with somebody close to you. You keep replaying the
argument and stressing about what it means for your relationship. The Calming
Strategy: “Your emotions are heightened after a fight, which can lead to
rumination,” Wilson says. To bring them back down, practice the STOP
technique: Stop and pause before making any decisions, no matter how sure
you feel. Take a step back to untangle yourself from any complicated fallout
from the fight. Observe the situation from an objective perspective, and
consider all the possible outcomes. Finally, proceed, with the knowledge that
you have assessed the situation from multiple angles and are committed to
acting rationally instead of emotionally.
8) You just finished an intense evening workout, and now you’re so keyed
up that you can’t wind down. The Calming Strategy: Completing a workout is a
solid achievement, but so is getting the rest you need afterward. If you
frequently find yourself unable to relax after physical activity, consider moving
your workout to an earlier time of day or dialing down the intensity. If your
schedule only allows you to train at night, “reserve several minutes for gentle
stretching or calming yoga after your workout to help your body and mind
relax,” Kain says.
Advertisement — Continue Reading Below
9) It’s time for bed, but your brain is focused on your worries, making it
hard to sleep. The Calming Strategy: Try progressive muscle relaxation, in which
you tense up and relax parts of your body, starting with your feet and moving up
to your head. Or give diaphragmatic breathing a shot. “It stimulates the
parasympathetic nervous system to elicit a relaxation response,” Kain says. Place
one hand on your chest and the other on your belly. Inhale through your nose
until you feel your stomach expand—this lets you know that you’re breathing
into your diaphragm. Then slowly exhale through your mouth and feel your
stomach contract. Another solid option is incorporating a supplement with
ingredients meant to relax into your nighttime routine.
10) You wake up at 3 a.m. and can’t stop ruminating on the future. The
Calming Strategy: Rumination is your brain’s way of trying to find an answer.
“It’s in part a defense mechanism, where the limbic system and brain stem act
to anticipate future threats and develop protective solutions,” says Danielle
Kelvas, M.D. But the process can also cause distress and insomnia, which can
trigger panic attacks and worsen symptoms of depression and anxiety. To settle
yourself down, Kelvas recommends practicing mindfulness meditation every
night before bed. Over time, you’ll be able to see these sorts of thoughts coming
from a distance, and understand that your brain is simply trying to protect you.
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Diagnosis or Overdiagnosis?
ADHD, Autistic Disorder, and Asperger’s Disorder
Two common critiques of the DSM are that the categorization system
leaves quite a bit of ambiguity in diagnosis and that it covers such a wide variety
of behaviors. Let’s take a closer look at three common disorders—attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autistic disorder, and Asperger’s
disorder—that have recently raised controversy because they are being
diagnosed significantly more frequently than they were in the past.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Zack, aged 7 years, has always had trouble settling down. He is easily
bored and distracted. In school, he cannot stay in his seat for very long and he
frequently does not follow instructions. He is constantly fidgeting or staring into
space. Zack has poor social skills and may overreact when someone accidentally
bumps into him or uses one of his toys. At home, he chatters constantly and
rarely settles down to do a quiet activity, such as reading a book.
Symptoms such as Zack’s are common among 7-year-olds, and particularly
among boys. But what do the symptoms mean? Does Zack simply have a lot of
energy and a short attention span? Boys mature more slowly than girls at this
age, and perhaps Zack will catch up in the next few years. One possibility is for
the parents and teachers to work with Zack to help him be more attentive, to
put up with the behavior, and to wait it out.
But many parents, often on the advice of the child’s teacher, take their
children to a psychologist for diagnosis. If Zack were taken for testing today, it is
very likely that he would be diagnosed with a psychological disorder known as
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is a developmental
behavior disorder characterized by problems with focus, difficulty maintaining
attention, and inability to concentrate, in which symptoms start before 7 years of
age. Although it is usually first diagnosed in childhood, ADHD can remain
problematic in adults, and up to 7% of college students are diagnosed with it. In
adults the symptoms of ADHD include forgetfulness, difficulty paying attention
to details, procrastination, disorganized work habits, and not listening to others.
ADHD is about 70% more likely to occur in males than in females, and is often
comorbid with other behavioral and conduct disorders.
The diagnosis of ADHD has quadrupled over the past 20 years such that it
is now diagnosed in about 1 out of every 20 American children and is the most
common psychological disorder among children in the world. ADHD is also being
diagnosed much more frequently in adolescents and adults. You might wonder
what this all means. Are the increases in the diagnosis of ADHD due to the fact
that today’s children and adolescents are actually more distracted and
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hyperactive than their parents were, due to a greater awareness of ADHD
among teachers and parents, or due to psychologists and psychiatrists’ tendency
to overdiagnose the problem? Perhaps drug companies are also involved,
because ADHD is often treated with prescription medications, including
stimulants such as Ritalin.
Although skeptics argue that ADHD is overdiagnosed and is a handy
excuse for behavioral problems, most psychologists believe that ADHD is a real
disorder that is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors.
Twin studies have found that ADHD is heritable (National Institute of Mental
Health, 2008)3, and neuroimaging studies have found that people with ADHD
may have structural differences in areas of the brain that influence self-control
and attention. Other studies have also pointed to environmental factors, such as
mothers’ smoking and drinking alcohol during pregnancy and the consumption
of lead and food additives by those who are affected. Social factors, such as
family stress and poverty, also contribute to ADHD.
Autistic Disorder and Asperger’s Disorder
Jared’s kindergarten teacher has voiced her concern to Jared’s parents
about his difficulties with interacting with other children and his delay in
developing normal language. Jared is able to maintain eye contact and enjoys
mixing with other children, but he cannot communicate with them very well. He
often responds to questions or comments with long-winded speeches about
trucks or some other topic that interests him, and he seems to lack awareness of
other children’s wishes and needs.
Jared’s concerned parents took him to a multidisciplinary child
development center for consultation. Here he was tested by a pediatric
neurologist, a psychologist, and a child psychiatrist.
The pediatric neurologist found that Jared’s hearing was normal, and
there were no signs of any neurological disorder. He diagnosed Jared with a
pervasive developmental disorder, because while his comprehension and
expressive language was poor, he was still able to carry out nonverbal tasks,
such as drawing a picture or doing a puzzle.
Based on her observation of Jared’s difficulty interacting with his peers,
and the fact that he did not respond warmly to his parents, the psychologist
diagnosed Jared with autistic disorder (autism), a disorder of neural
development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication
and by restricted and repetitive behavior, and in which symptoms begin before 7
years of age. The psychologist believed that the autism diagnosis was correct
because, like other children with autism, Jared, has a poorly developed ability to
see the world from the perspective of others; engages in unusual behaviors such
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as talking about trucks for hours; and responds to stimuli, such as the sound of a
car or an airplane, in unusual ways.
The child psychiatrist believed that Jared’s language problems and social
skills were not severe enough to warrant a diagnosis of autistic disorder and
instead proposed a diagnosis of Asperger’s disorder, a developmental disorder
that affects a child’s ability to socialize and communicate effectively with others
and in which symptoms begin before 7 years of age. The symptoms of Asperger’s
are almost identical to that of autism (with the exception of a delay in language
development), and the child psychiatrist simply saw these problems as less
extreme.
Imagine how Jared’s parents must have felt at this point. Clearly there is
something wrong with their child, but even the experts cannot agree on exactly
what the problem is. Diagnosing problems such as Jared’s is difficult, yet the
number of children like him is increasing dramatically. Disorders related to
autism and Asperger’s disorder now affect almost 1% of American children. The
milder forms of autism, and particularly Asperger’s, have accounted for most of
this increase in diagnosis.
Although for many years autism was thought to be primarily a socially
determined disorder, in which parents who were cold, distant, and rejecting
created the problem, current research suggests that biological factors are most
important. The heritability of autism has been estimated to be as high as 90%.
Scientists speculate that autism is caused by an unknown genetically determined
brain abnormality that occurs early in development. It is likely that several
different brain sites are affected, and the search for these areas is being
conducted in many scientific laboratories.
But does Jared have autism or Asperger’s? The problem is that diagnosis
is not exact (remember the idea of “categories”), and the experts themselves
are often unsure how to classify behavior. Furthermore, the appropriate
classifications change with time and new knowledge. The American Psychiatric
Association has recently posted on its website a proposal to eliminate the term
Asperger’s syndrome from the upcoming DSM-V. Whether or not Asperger’s will
remain a separate disorder will be made known when the next DSM-V is
published in 2013.
Key takeaways
More psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disorder than in any other endeavor, and those tasks are probably
the most important psychologists face.
The impact on people with a psychological disorder comes both from
the disease itself and from the stigma associated with disorder.
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A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of thought,
emotion, and behavior that causes significant distress and that is considered
deviant in that person’s culture or society.
According to the bio-psycho-social model, psychological disorders have
biological, psychological, and social causes.
It is difficult to diagnose psychological disorders, although the DSM
provides guidelines that are based on a category system. The DSM is frequently
revised, taking into consideration new knowledge as well as changes in cultural
norms about disorder.
There is controversy about the diagnosis of disorders such as ADHD,
autistic disorder, and Asperger’s disorder.
Anxiety and Dissociative Disorders:
Fearing the World Around Us
Anxiety, the nervousness or agitation that we sometimes experience, often
about something that is going to happen, is a natural part of life. We all feel
anxious at times, maybe when we think about our upcoming visit to the dentist
or the presentation we have to give to our class next week. Anxiety is an
important and useful human emotion; it is associated with the activation of the
sympathetic nervous system and the physiological and behavioral responses
that help protect us from danger. But too much anxiety can be debilitating, and
every year millions of people suffer from anxiety disorders, which are
psychological disturbances marked by irrational fears, often of everyday objects
and situations.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Consider the following, in which “Chase”
describes her feelings of a persistent and exaggerated sense of anxiety, even
when there is little or nothing in her life to provoke it:
For a few months now I’ve had a really bad feeling inside of me. The best
way to describe it is like a really bad feeling of negative inevitability, like
something really bad is impending, but I don’t know what. It’s like I’m on trial for
murder or I’m just waiting to be sent down for something. I have it all of the
time but it gets worse in waves that come from nowhere with no apparent
triggers. I used to get it before going out for nights out with friends, and it kinda
stopped me from doing it as I’d rather not go out and stress about the feeling,
but now I have it all the time so it doesn’t really make a difference anymore.
(Chase, 2010)
Chase is probably suffering from a generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), a
psychological disorder diagnosed in situations in which a person has been
excessively worrying about money, health, work, family life, or relationships for
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at least 6 months, even though he or she knows that the concerns are
exaggerated, and when the anxiety causes significant distress and dysfunction.
In addition to their feelings of anxiety, people who suffer from GAD may
also experience a variety of physical symptoms, including irritability, sleep
troubles, difficulty concentrating, muscle aches, trembling, perspiration, and hot
flashes. The sufferer cannot deal with what is causing the anxiety, nor avoid it,
because there is no clear cause for anxiety. In fact, the sufferer frequently
knows, at least cognitively, that there is really nothing to worry about.
About 10 million Americans suffer from GAD, and about two thirds are
women (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005; Robins & Regier, 1991).
Generalized anxiety disorder is most likely to develop between the ages of 7 and
40 years, but its influence may in some cases lessen with age.
Panic Disorder. When I was about 30 I had my first panic attack. I was
driving home, my three little girls were in their car seats in the back, and all of a
sudden I couldn’t breathe, I broke out into a sweat, and my heart began racing
and literally beating against my ribs! I thought I was going to die. I pulled off the
road and put my head on the wheel. I remember songs playing on the CD for
about 15 minutes and my kids’ voices singing along. I was sure I’d never see
them again. And then, it passed. I slowly got back on the road and drove home. I
had no idea what it was.
Ceejay is experiencing panic disorder, a psychological disorder
characterized by sudden attacks of anxiety and terror that have led to significant
behavioral changes in the person’s life. Symptoms of a panic attack include
shortness of breath, heart palpitations, trembling, dizziness, choking sensations,
nausea, and an intense feeling of dread or impending doom. Panic attacks can
often be mistaken for heart attacks or other serious physical illnesses, and they
may lead the person experiencing them to go to a hospital emergency room.
Panic attacks may last as little as one or as much as 20 minutes, but they often
peak and subside within about 10 minutes.
Sufferers are often anxious because they fear that they will have another
attack. They focus their attention on the thoughts and images of their fears,
becoming excessively sensitive to cues that signal the possibility of threat. They
may also become unsure of the source of their arousal, misattributing it to
situations that are not actually the cause. As a result, they may begin to avoid
places where attacks have occurred in the past, such as driving, using an
elevator, or being in public places. Panic disorder affects about 3% of the
American population in a given year.
Phobias. A phobia (from the Greek word phobos, which means “fear”) is a
specific fear of a certain object, situation, or activity. The fear experience can
range from a sense of unease to a full-blown panic attack. Most people learn to
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