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Файл:Medicine. Учебное пособие по развитию навыков чтения, перевода и устной речи на английском языке для студентов специальности «Лечебное дело»
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YOU HAVE TO KNOW
Common Name
Scientific Name
skull
cranium
jawbone
mandible
collarbone
clavicle
shoulder blade
scapula
breast bone
sternum
funny bone
humerus
spine
vertebrae
hips
pelvis
wrist
carpals
hip
pelvis
thigh bone
femur
kneecap
patella
shin bone
tibia
ankle
tarsals
HUMAN SKELETON
Names of Bones
Each bone has a special name. We usually say their common names like the
kneecap, shin bone, collarbone, etc... Let's learn the scientific names that a nurse,
doctor or scientist might use. The chart below provides both the common name and
the real name of different bones in our body. You can also see a diagram of the skeleton. You can use the diagram to locate many of the bones in your body.
Work with your partner. Look at the picture “Human skeleton”. Use the words
to identify parts of the skeleton. Check your answers.
Test “How much do you know about a human body?”
1. What does our Skeleton do for our bodies?
a) support
b) protection
c) movement
d) all the above
2. What holds bones together?
a) tendons
b) ligaments
c) cartilage
d) marrow
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3. What attaches your muscles to your bones?
a) ligaments
b) cartilage
c) tendons
d) cranium
4. The cranium is also known as the...?
a) skull
b) shin
c) foot
d) hand
5. The tibia is also known as...?
a) thigh bone
b) shin bone
c) collar bone
d) nose
6. Why is bone marrow important?
a) marrow is very hard
b) marrow makes oxygen
c) marrow makes blood cells
d) marrow cleans your blood
7. Where can vertebrae be found?
a) foot
b) arm
c) fingers
d) spine
8. The patella is located in the:
a) knee
b) foot
c) ear
d) elbow
9. The bones in your spine are called:
a) cartilage
b) little bones
c) ribs
d) vertebrae
10. How many bones does an adult human have?
a) 500
b) 110
c) 206
d) 55
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11. Bones meet at:
(Keys: 1.d 2.b 3.c 4.a 5.d 6.c 7.d 8.a 9.d 10.c 11.a 12.d 13.d 14.d 15.a 16.c 17.b 18.d)
a) joints
b) ligaments
c) a local restaurant
d) the rib cage
12. The _______ bone protects your brain.
a) tail
b) shin
c) back
d) skull
13. The rib cage protects your:
a) liver
b) heart
c) lungs
d) all of the above
14. What’s in the center of a bone?
a) cream filling
b) compact bone
c) cancellous bone
d) bone marrow
15. What is the joint between upper arm and forearm called?
a) elbow
b) knee
c) toe
d) coccyx
16. What does NOT a lower limb have?
a) thigh-bone
b) fibula
c) wrist
d) the shinbone
17. The muscles of the body are subdivided into
a) two
b) three
c) four
d) five
18. What do you need to do to keep your bones healthy?
a) exercise
b) eat calcium rich foods
c) drink low-fat milk
d) all of the above
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TEXTS FOR HOMEREADING
Text 1. Pivotal cellular protein underlying eczema identified.
Researchers from the La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology have revealed a critical player in the cellular interactions leading to eczema — a chronic inflammatory skin condition affecting more than 14 million U.S. children and adults.
In a study published today, Toshiaki Kawakami, M.D., Ph.D., and his research
team provide information which supports — for the first time in humans — the longheld theory that mast cells are a key culprit in causing eczema, also known as atopic
dermatitis. Further, the team showed that a cellular protein, known as STAT5, plays a
pivotal role by triggering major increases in mast cells in the skin of some eczema
sufferers. The discovery opens the door to creating new therapies to prevent or better
treat eczema based on blocking STAT5 in mast cells.
The team conducted its studies using skin samples from eczema patients. "We
found that the number of mast cells, which we have previously shown to be important
in mouse atopic dermatitis, is increased in human patients," says Kawakami. "We also showed that these mast cells contain high levels of the active form of STAT5."
Kawakami says the researchers also tested their theory on STAT5's importance
in mice. "When STAT5 is knocked out in the mast cells (of specially engineered
mice), the mice become resistant to atopic dermatitis," says Kawakami. "This indicates that STAT5 regulatory mechanisms in mast cells are important for the pathogenesis of this disease."
The findings were published online in Cell Reports in a paper entitled "Critical
role for mast-cell Stat5 activity in skin inflammation." The study was supported in
part by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), a component of the National Institutes of Health, under contract number N01 AI40030.
Eczema is a condition in which the skin becomes inflamed or irritated and is
marked by redness, itchiness and dry, cracked skin. The exact cause of eczema is unknown, but it's thought to be linked to an overactive response by the body's immune
system to allergens and irritants, similar to other allergic diseases such as asthma and
food allergy. Eczema is more common in children than adults, since it sometimes resolves with age. About 10.7 percent of U.S. children and 3 percent of adults are estimated to be affected.
Kawakami says this finding is a continuation of his nearly 10-year effort to pinpoint the cascade of key cellular actions involved in eczema. Initially working in
mice, his latest study enabled human confirmation of his key findings. "We now
know that, in eczema, the mechanisms we found in mice are also operative in human
disease," says Kawakami. Along with showing that mast cells and STAT5 drive the
eczema process in humans, this study also found an enzyme — Phospholipase C-
beta3 (PLC-3) — that can block the activation. PLC-3 has a calming effort on
STAT5 and can prevent it from driving up the mast cell numbers, explains Kawakami. "The mast cell numbers are inversely correlated with PLC-3 levels," he says.
"The more PLC-3, the fewer the mast cells."
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Text 2. Alcohol can damage much more than just the liver.
Alcohol can do much more harm to the body than just damaging the liver.
Drinking also can weaken the immune system, slow healing, impair bone formation,
increase the risk of HIV transmission and hinder recovery from burns, trauma, bleeding and surgery.
Researchers released the latest findings on such negative effects of alcohol during a meeting Nov. 19 of the Alcohol and Immunology Research Interest Group, held
at Loyola University Medical Center.
At Loyola, about 50 faculty members, technicians, post-doctoral fellows and
students are conducting alcohol research. Studies at Loyola and other centers could
lead to therapies to boost the immune system or otherwise minimize the effects of alcohol, said Elizabeth J. Kovacs, PhD, director of Loyola's Alcohol Research Program
and associate director of Loyola's Burn & Shock Trauma Institute.
"Of course, the best way to prevent the damaging effects of alcohol is to not
drink in the first place," Kovacs said. "But it is very difficult to get people to do this."
Sessions at the conference included Alcohol and Infection, Alcohol and Oxidative Stress and Alcohol and Organ Inflammation. Findings were presented by researchers from centers around the country, including Loyola, Cleveland Clinic, University of Iowa, University of Colorado, University of Massachusetts, Mississippi
State University, Chicago State University and the National Institute on Alcohol
Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA).
The conference was supported by Loyola's Alcohol Research Program and Department of Surgery at Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, the
Society for Leukocyte Biology and the NIAAA.
Text 3. New imaging technique speeds removal of non-melanoma skin
cancers.
A common surgery for non-melanoma skin cancer, known as Mohs surgery typically achieves excellent results but can be a long process, as the surgeon successively removes the area of concern until the surrounding tissue is free of cancer. To determine whether further tissue removal is necessary, the borders of the lesion must be
processed in a laboratory to check for residual cancer tissue — a process that takes
20–45 minutes and is often repeated numerous times. Now, NIBIB-funded researchers have developed a microscopic technique to analyze removed tissue rapidly right
in the clinic — dramatically reducing the length, inefficiency, and expense of this
procedure.
With approximately 3.5 million new cases per year in the U.S., Mohs surgery is
a fairly common procedure that many people undergo repeatedly as new skin cancers
appear. It can take one to three hours, or even longer depending on the size and location of the lesion. The process is lengthy because after a section of tissue is removed,
it must be frozen and stained so it can be examined to ensure the borders are clear of
residual tumor. Although highly effective, the current practice is labor intensive for
surgeons and assisting staff, as well as lengthy and stressful for patients. The time
spent by surgical personnel and those analyzing the tissue in the lab increases the expense of the procedure, which has been estimated to cost $ 2-3 billion per year
in the U.S.
65
NIBIB-supported researchers led by Milind Rajadhyaksha, Ph.D. at Memorial
Sloan Kettering are using their expertise in optical imaging to improve this common
procedure. Optical imaging is a technique that uses visible or near-infrared light to
obtain detailed images of organs, tissues, and cells. The investigators developed a
new pathological assessment technique called strip mosaicing confocal microscopy — a type of optical imaging — that can provide high resolution images during re-
moval of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas (non-melanoma skin cancers) and
perhaps other tumors of the skin. The new technique uses a focused laser line that
performs multiple scans of the tissue to obtain image "strips" that are then combined,
like a mosaic, into a complete image of the excised tissue. The process takes only 90
seconds and eliminates the need to freeze and stain the tissue samples for analysis —
a process that takes 20 to 45 minutes.
The new imaging technique was tested on 17 patients with 34 tissue samples.
The overall image quality was excellent, with high resolution and contrast, providing
for good visibility of the epidermis and dermis. Researchers compared the new technique against the Mohs approach with its frozen section processing. The new technique achieved a promising 94% in preliminary measures of sensitivity and specificity for detecting skin cancer margins, which is comparable to the "gold standard"
Mohs procedure. These preliminary results demonstrated that the optical technique
could potentially detect skin cancer margins with the same accuracy as the conventional frozen section technique.
The results of this study were obtained under laboratory conditions; a clinical
trial is now being conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of using this technique in
the clinical setting, the ultimate goal of the research group.
Steve Krosnick, M.D., NIBIB director for the Program for Image-Guided Interventions, explains the utility of the optical system: "The technology is particularly
well-suited for Mohs-trained surgeons, who are experts at performing excisions and
interpreting images of tissue samples removed during the Mohs procedure. Image
quality, ability to make accurate interpretations, and time savings will be key parameters for adoption of the system in the clinical setting, and the current results are very
encouraging."
The research was conducted by a team consisting of two laboratories at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, as well as students from Bronx
High School of Science, New York and Livingston High School, Livingston New
Jersey. The work is published in the October 2013 issue of the British Journal of
Dermatology.
Text 4. Cancer.
Cancer is a group of diseases in which cells are aggressive (grow and divide
without respect to normal limits), invasive (invade and destroy adjacent tissues),
and/or metastatic (spread to other locations in the body). These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited in
their growth and do not invade or metastasize (although some benign tumor types are
capable of becoming malignant).
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Cancer may affect people at all ages, even fetuses, but risk for the more common
varieties tends to increase with age. Cancer causes about 13% of all deaths. Apart
from people, forms of cancer may affect animals and plants.
Nearly all cancers are caused by abnormalities in the genetic material of the
transformed cells. These abnormalities may be due to the effects of carcinogens, such
as tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents.
Other cancer-promoting genetic abnormalities may be randomly acquired
through errors in DNA replication, or are inherited, and thus present in all cells from
birth. Complex interactions between carcinogens and the host genome may explain
why only some develop cancer after exposure to a known carcinogen.
New aspects of the genetics of cancer pathogenesis, such as DNA methylation,
and microRNAs are increasingly being recognized as important.
Genetic abnormalities found in cancer typically affect two general classes of
genes. Cancer-promoting oncogenes are often activated in cancer cells, giving those
cells new properties, such as hyperactive growth and division, protection against programmed cell death, loss of respect for normal tissue boundaries, and the ability to
become established in diverse tissue environments. Tumor suppressor genes are often
inactivated in cancer cells, resulting in the loss of normal functions in those cells,
such as accurate DNA replication, control over the cell cycle, orientation and adhesion within tissues, and interaction with protective cells of the immune system.
Cancer is usually classified according to the tissue from which the cancerous
cells originate, as well as the normal cell type they most resemble. These are location
and histology, respectively. A definitive diagnosis usually requires the histologic examination of a tissue biopsy specimen by a pathologist, although the initial indication
of malignancy can be symptoms or radiographic imaging abnormalities.
Most cancers can be treated and some cured, depending on the specific type, location, and stage. Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with a combination of
surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
As research develops, treatments are becoming more specific for different varieties of cancer. There has been significant progress in the development of targeted
therapy drugs that act specifically on detectable molecular abnormalities in certain
tumors, and which minimize damage to normal cells. The prognosis of cancer patients is most influenced by the type of cancer, as well as the stage, or extent of the
disease. In addition, histologic grading and the presence of specific molecular markers can also be useful in establishing prognosis, as well as in determining individual
treatments.
Text 5. Cigarette smoking after cancer diagnosis increases risk of death.
Men who continued to smoke after a cancer diagnosis had an increased risk of
death compared with those who quit smoking after diagnosis, according to a study
published in Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, a journal of the American Association for Cancer Research.
67
Compared with men who did not smoke after a cancer diagnosis, those who
smoked after diagnosis had a 59 percent increase in risk of death from all causes, after adjusting for factors including age, cancer site, and treatment type. When limited
to men who were smokers at diagnosis, those who continued smoking after diagnosis
had a 76 percent increase in risk of death from all causes compared with those who
quit smoking after a diagnosis.
"Many cancer patients and their health care providers assume that it is not worth
the effort to stop smoking at a time when the damage from smoking has already been
done, considering these patients have been diagnosed with cancer," said Li Tao,
M.D., M.S., Ph.D., epidemiologist at the Cancer Prevention Institute of California in
Fremont. "Our study provides evidence of the impact of postdiagnosis smoking on
survival after cancer, and assists in addressing the critical issue of tobacco control in
cancer survivorship."
When cancer patients who continued smoking after diagnosis were compared
with cancer patients who quit smoking after diagnosis, the risk of death varied with
different cancer organ sites: risk of death increased by 2.95-fold for bladder cancer
patients who continued smoking, 2.36-fold for lung cancer patients who continued
smoking, and 2.31-fold for colorectal cancer patients who continued smoking.
"As far as we know, only a fraction of cancer patients who are smokers at diagnosis receive formal smoking cessation counseling from their physicians or health
care providers at the time of diagnosis and treatment, and less than half of these patients eventually quit smoking after the diagnosis," Tao said. "Therefore, there is considerable room for improvement with regard to tobacco control in the postdiagnosis
setting for the growing population of cancer survivors.
"Compared with the general population, cancer patients are more likely to receive treatment on an inpatient basis or prolonged outpatient visits," she added.
"Health care providers have an important 'window of teachable moment' to engage in
tobacco-use counseling during these visits. This piece of solid evidence from our
study in establishing the role of cigarette smoking in cancer survival is necessary for
implementing and enforcing smoking cessation interventions in order for patients to
increase their chances to achieve better outcomes. Policymakers should consider including information on health outcomes of smoking cessation in educational materials for specific intervention programs and policies targeting cancer survivors."
Tao and colleagues used data from the Shanghai Cohort Study, which is a prospective cohort study investigating the association between lifestyle characteristics
and risk of cancer among middle-aged and older men in Shanghai, China. Between
1986 and 1989, 18,244 men were enrolled in the study. Participants were 45 to 64
years old, and completed an in-person interview-based questionnaire about demographics, history of tobacco and alcohol use, diet, and medical history. Data were
updated on an annual basis for all surviving cohort members.
By 2010, 3,310 participants were diagnosed with cancer. Of these participants,
1,632 were eligible for this study. Of the eligible study participants, 931 died from
any cause. In addition, 340 were nonsmokers, 545 quit smoking before a cancer diagnosis, and 747 were smokers at diagnosis.
Of the 747 smokers at diagnosis, 214 quit after diagnosis, 197 continued smoking consistently, and the remaining 336 smoked intermittently.
68
Text 6. Cancer Statistics 2014: Death rates continue to drop.
The annual cancer statistics report from the American Cancer Society finds
steady declines in cancer death rates for the past two decades add up to a 20 percent
drop in the overall risk of dying from cancer over that time period. The report, Cancer
Statistics 2014, finds progress has been most rapid for middle-aged black men,
among whom death rates have declined by approximately 50 percent. Despite this
substantial progress, black men continue to have the highest cancer incidence and
death rates among all ethnicities in the U.S.-about double those of Asian Americans,
who have the lowest rates.
Each year, the American Cancer Society estimates the numbers of new cancer
cases and deaths expected in the United States in the current year and compiles the
most recent data on cancer incidence, mortality, and survival based on incidence data
from the National Cancer Institute and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and mortality data from the National Center for Health Statistics. The data are
disseminated in two reports, Cancer Statistics, published in CA: A Cancer Journal for
Clinicians, and its companion article, Cancer Facts & Figures.
This year's report estimates there will be 1,665,540 new cancer cases and
585,720 cancer deaths in the United States in 2014. Among men, prostate, lung, and
colon cancer will account for about half of all newly diagnosed cancers, with prostate
cancer alone accounting for about one in four cases. Among women, the three most
common cancers in 2014 will be breast, lung, and colon, which together will account
for half of all cases. Breast cancer alone is expected to account for 29% of all new
cancers among women.
The estimated 585,720 deaths from cancer in 2014 correspond to about 1,600
deaths per day. Lung, colon, prostate, and breast cancers continue to be the most
common causes of cancer death, accounting for almost half of the total cancer deaths
among men and women. Just over one in four cancer deaths is due to lung cancer.
During the most recent five years for which there are data (2006-2010), cancer
incidence rates declined slightly in men (by 0.6% per year) and were stable in women, while cancer death rates decreased by 1.8% per year in men and by 1.4% per year
in women. The combined cancer death rate has been continuously declining for two
decades, from a peak of 215.1 per 100,000 in 1991 to 171.8 per 100,000 in 2010.
This 20 percent decline translates to the avoidance of approximately 1,340,400 cancer
deaths (952,700 among men and 387,700 among women) during this time period.
The magnitude of the decline in cancer death rates from 1991 to 2010 varies
substantially by age, race, and sex, ranging from no decline among white women
aged 80 years and older to a 55% decline among black men aged 40 years to 49
years. Notably, black men experienced the largest drop within every 10-year age
group.
"The progress we are seeing is good, even remarkable, but we can and must do
even better," said John R. Seffrin, PhD, chief executive officer of the American Cancer Society. "The halving of the risk of cancer death among middle aged black men in
just two decades is extraordinary, but it is immediately tempered by the knowledge
that death rates are still higher among black men than white men for nearly every major cancer and for all cancers combined."
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ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 1 (Appendix 1)
letters
pronunciation
example
definition/translation
ch
k
chemical [ˈkɛmɪkl]
pertaining to chemistry
— химический
dys
dis
dystrophy [´distrɔfi]
poor nourishment of
tissue — дистрофия
eu
u
euphoria [juːˈfɔːrɪə]
exaggerated feeling of
well-being — эйфория
gn
n
gnathic [´næθik]
pertaining to the jaw —
челюстной
ph
f
pharmacy [ˈfɑːməsɪ]
a drug dispensary —
аптека
pn
n
pneumonia
[njuːˈməʊnɪə]
inflammation of the
lungs — пневмония,
воспаление легких
ps
s
pseudo- [ˈsjuːdəu]
false — ложный
pt t ptosis [´tɔusis]
dropping — опущение
верхнего века, птоз
rh
r
rheumatic [ruːˈmætɪk]
pertaining to
rheumatism, a disorder
of muscles and joints —
ревматический
x z xiphoid [ˈzɪfɔɪd]
pertaining to cartilage
attached to the
sternum — мечевидный
отросток
Особенности произношения
медицинских терминов
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