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Файл:Medicine. Учебное пособие по развитию навыков чтения, перевода и устной речи на английском языке для студентов специальности «Лечебное дело»
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Alternative medicine — includes any practice which claims to heal but does not
fall within the realm of conventional/traditional medicine. In most cases, because it is
based on cultural or historical traditions, instead of scientific evidence. Scientific refers to, for example, demonstrating the effectiveness or a therapy or drug in a doubleblind, random, long-term, large clinical human study (clinical trial), in which the
therapy or drug is compared to either a placebo or another therapy/drug. Examples of
alternative medicine include homeopathy, acupuncture, ayurveda, naturopathic medicine, and traditional Chinese medicine.
The History of Medicine — humans have been practicing medicine in one way
or another for over a million years. In order to understand how modern medicine got
to where it is now, it is important to read about the history of medicine.
Speak about the fields of medicine.
Text 3
Make a written translation of the text.
When we are ill, we call a doctor, and he examines us and diagnoses the illness.
When we have a headache, a stomachache, a sore throat, a cold, or a pain in some
parts of the body, we call a doctor. He takes our temperature and our pulse. He examines our heart, our lungs, our stomach or the part where we have pain, and tells us
what the matter is with us. The doctor prescribes medicines, and gives us a prescription, which we take to the chemist's, who makes up the medicine.
If you follow the doctor's orders, you get better; if you disobey the doctor, you
may get worse, and even die. We must obey the doctor, if we want to get better. If we
have a temperature, we must stay in bed and take the medicine he prescribes. If we
cannot get better at home we must go to hospital.
If we are too ill to walk, we go to hospital in the ambulance. After our illness we
can go to a sanatorium until we are strong again.
When we have toothache, we go to the dentist's. He examines our teeth, finds
the tooth which hurts us, stops or extracts it.
Now here in Russia health system incorporates a variety of medical institutions.
The medical service in Russia is of two kinds. Some state establishments give their
employees medical insurance cards. They guarantee the people free of charge medical assistance. Some medical establishments charge fees for treatment. They may be
rather high, but our medical service now uses all modern equipment and medicines
and provides qualified medical help to all people.
YOU HAVE TO KNOW
В английском языке, в отличие от русского, для каждого рода заболеваний
имеется свой термин. Мы можем назвать болезнью что угодно, но в английском
для этого есть как минимум три разных по смыслу слова.
Вот три основных термина, в которых часто путаются.
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Disease
Этим словом обозначают болезнь, заболевание в самом широком смысле.
Слово "disease" может означать врожденную или неизлечимую болезнь, патологию, любое отклонение от нормы. "Disease" можно перевести и как расстройство: и физическое, и душевное. Этим словом обозначают самые тяжелые
болезни и диагнозы, часто становящиеся приговором и длящиеся всю жизнь.
Слово “disease” произошло от древнефранцузского слова “desaise”, где “des”
«без» + “aise” «покой».
Illness
Это слово чаще всего используется для обозначения симптомов "disease",
плохого самочувствия. Человек может быть болен чем-то (diseased), но при
этом не чувствовать себя плохо (ill); или наоборот — быть больным (ill), но не
иметь при этом патологии (disease).
Плохое самочувствие (illness) не может длиться вечно, от него можно избавиться, а от заболевания (disease) — не всегда.
Sickness
Это слово тоже обозначает плохое самочувствие, но не как симптом или
проявление внутреннего заболевания (disease), а как неприятие чего-то, реакция
на что-то непривычное. Человек может испытать плохое самочувствие
(sickness) от перепада температур, резкого запаха, тряски или отравления.
Часто встречается выражение "I'm sick of it / It makes me sick" — меня от
этого тошнит, воротит, я не приемлю этого — т.е., состояние "sickness" может
быть не только физическим, но и моральным.
Также словом "sick" обозначают временную недееспособность, когда человек пропускает работу, есть даже специальный термин "sick days" — дни на
больничном.
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TEXT 2. HISTORY OF MEDICINE
Read, translate and learn the words:
occupation, develop, civilization, ceremonial, practice, magic, tribe, human body,
composition, fracture, aromatherapy, pioneer, immunization, acupuncture, enormous, healer, curative, hygienist, physician, achievement, appear, oriental, foundation, discipline, discovery, invention, stethoscope, immunology, surgery, contribution,
blood, vitamin
Read and translate the text:
Medicine is among the most ancient of human occupations. It began as an art
and gradually developed into a science over the centuries. There are three main stages
in medicine development: Medicine of Ancient Civilizations, Medicine of the Middle
Ages and Modern Medicine.
Early man, like the animals, was subject to illness and death. At that time medical actions were mostly a part of ceremonial rituals. The medicine man practiced
magic to help people who were ill or had a wound. New civilizations, which developed from early tribes, began to study the human body, its anatomic composition.
Magic still played an important part in treating but new practical methods were also
developing. The early Indians, for instance, set fractures and practiced aromatherapy.
The Chinese were pioneers of immunization and acupuncture. The contribution of the
Greeks in medicine was enormous. An early leader in Greek medicine was Aesculapius. His daughters, Hygeia and Panacea gave rise to dynasties of healers (curative
medicine) and hygienists (preventive medicine). The division in curative and preventive medicine is true today. Another Greek, Hippocrates, summarized the ethic principles of a physician. They are known as Hippocrates Oath.
The next stage of Medicine's development was the Middle Ages. A very important achievement of that time was the hospital. The first ones appeared in the 15th
century in Oriental countries and later in Europe. Another advance of the Middle Ages was the foundation of universities during 13–14th centuries. Among other disciplines students could study medicine. During 18th century new discoveries were
made in chemistry, anatomy, biology, other sciences. The advances of that time were
invention of the stethoscope (by Rene Laennec), vaccination for smallpox, discovery
of anesthetics and development of immunology and scientific surgery. The next century is a rise of bacteriology. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch made important discoveries. The development of scientific bacteriology made possible advances in surgery:
using antiseptics and control of wound infection.
Medicine in the 20th century made enormous contribution in the basic medical
sciences. These are discovery of blood groups and vitamins, invention of insulin and
penicillin, practice of plastic surgery and transplantation.
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Glossary:
set a fracture — лечить перелом
Aesculapius [ˌiːskju'leɪpɪəs] — Эскулап (римский бог медицины)
Hygeia [haɪ'dʒiːə] — Гигия, богиня здоровья
Panacea [ˌpanəˈsiːə] — Панацея
give rise to — положить начало
Hippocrates [hɪˈpɒkrətiːz] Oath — клятва Гиппократа
smallpox — оспа
antiseptic — антисептический; антисептическое средство
anesthetic — анестезирующий, обезболивающий; обезболивающее средство
EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Form nouns from the following verbs using suffixes:
-tion: occupy, civilize, compose, immunize, contribute, found, imagine, invent,
vaccinate, transplant;
-ment: develop, achieve, govern, pay, judge, move, equip, amaze
Ex. 2. Form adjectives from the following verbs and nouns using suffixes:
-ive: prevent, cure, attract, talk, create, innovate, act, impress, impulse, mass;
-al (-ical): ceremony, medicine, practice, chemistry, biology, anatomy, history,
ecology, logic;
-ful: beauty, wonder, peace, hope, care, help, use, power, thank.
Ex. 3. Form adjectives (nationalities) from the names of the countries (using
suitable suffixes). Consult a dictionary if necessary:
Example: Russia — Russian, Sweden- Swedish etc.
Italy, Spain, Brazil, China, England, Scotland, Mexico, Egypt, Greece, Japan,
Portugal, Hungary, France, Germany, Poland, Canada, Holland(the Netherlands),
Switzerland, the USA, Wales, Ireland, Australia, Austria, Turkey, Latvia, Denmark.
Ex. 4. Insert articles where necessary:
1. Medicine is … ancient science. 2. It began as … art and developed into …
science over … centuries. 3. First hospitals appeared in … Middle Ages. 4. Magic
played … important part in … treating. 5. Medicine is one of … most ancient of human occupations. 6. During 18–th century new discoveries were made in … chemistry, …anatomy, …biology. 7. … discovery of … anesthetics was one of … advances
of … that time. 8. … development of … scientific bacteriology made possible advances in … surgery. 9. … Chinese were pioneers of … immunization and … acupuncture. 10. … ethic principles of … physician were summarized by …Hippocrates,
who was … Greek.
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Ex. 5. Insert the following verbs into the sentences, using Past Simple (don’t
look into the text):
develop, summarize, practice, make, begin, be, play, give, appear
1. Medicine … as an art and gradually … into a science over the centuries.
2. The medicine man … magic to help people.
3. Hygeia and Panacea … rise to dynasties of healers and hygienists.
4. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch … important discoveries in bacteriology.
5. The first hospitals … in the 15-th century in Oriental countries and later in
Europe.
6. Magic … an important part in treating.
7. Hippocrates … the ethic principles of a physician.
8. Another advance of the Middle Ages … the foundation of universities during
13–14-th centuries.
Ex. 6. Write all types of questions to the sentences:
a) At that time medical actions were mostly a part of ceremonial rituals.
b) Magic played an important part in treating at early times.
Ex. 7. Make up questions to the following answers:
1. There are three main stages in medicine development.
2. To help people who were ill or had a wound.
3. The human body and its anatomic composition.
4. Hygeia and Panacea.
5. They appeared in the 15th century in Oriental countries and later in Europe.
6. Invention of the stethoscope, vaccination for smallpox, discovery of anesthet-
ics and development of immunology and scientific surgery.
7. In the 20-th century.
Ex. 7. Speak about:
the early medicine and its methods;
the medicine of new civilizations;
famous Greek physicians;
medicine of the Middle Ages;
medical discoveries of the 18
th
and 19th centuries;
contemporary medicine and its advances.
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SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS
Text 1
Read the text and answer the questions.
Medicine Through Time
Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health
care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment
of illness. All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for
birth, death, and disease.
Throughout history, illness has been attributed to witchcraft, demons, adverse
astral influence, or the will of the gods. Early records on medicine have been discovered from ancient Egyptian medicine, Babylonian medicine, Ayurvedic medicine (in
the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine (predecessor to the modern traditional Chinese Medicine), and ancient Greek medicine and Roman medicine. Prehistoric medicine incorporated plants (herbalism), animal parts and minerals. In many
cases these materials were used ritually as magical substances by priests, shamans, or
medicine men. Plant materials (herbs and substances derived from natural sources),
were among the treatments for diseases in prehistoric cultures.
The Egyptian Imhotep (2667 — 2648 BC) is the first physician in history known
by name. Although Egyptian medicine, to a good extent, dealt with the supernatural,
it eventually developed a practical use in the fields of anatomy, public health, and
clinical diagnostics.
The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period
in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Along with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and medical prescriptions. In the first millennium BCE, there
emerges in post-Vedic India the traditional medicine system known as Ayurveda
meaning the "complete knowledge for long life". The Ayurvedic classics mention
eight branches of medicine: internal medicine, surgery including anatomy, eye, ear,
nose, and throat diseases, pediatrics, spirit medicine, and toxicology, science of rejuvenation, and aphrodisiacs mainly for men.
The Greek physician Hippocrates (460 — 370 BC), the "father of medicine",
laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates was perhaps the
first to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms
such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence".
The Romans invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women, as well as the surgical uses of forceps, scalpels, cautery,
cross-bladed scissors, the surgical needle, the sound, and speculas. Romans also performed cataract surgery.
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After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle
Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into decline in Western Europe, although
it continued uninterrupted in the Eastern Roman Empire. After 750 CE, the Muslim
Arab world had the ancient works on medicine translated into Arabic, and Islamic
physicians engaged in some significant medical research. Notable Islamic medical
pioneers include the polymath, Avicenna, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates,
has also been called the "father of medicine". He wrote The Canon of Medicine, considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.
Glossary:
Ayurvedic [aɪuə'veɪdɪk] — аюрведический
Imhotep [ɪmˈhəʊtɛp] — Имхотеп
Ayurveda ['ɑːjuˌveɪdə] — аюрведа, традиционная система индийской
медицины
exacerbation [ɪgˌzæsə'beɪʃ(ə)n] — обострение болезни
relapse [rɪ'læps] — 1) повторение 2) рецидив
resolution [ˌrez(ə)'luːʃ(ə)n] — рассасывание; прекращение воспалительных
явлений
paroxysm ['pærəksɪz(ə)m] — приступ (болезни), припадок, пароксизм
convalescence [ˌkɔnvə'les(ə)n(t)s] — выздоравливание; выздоровление
forceps ['fɔːseps] — хирургические щипцы
cautery ['kɔːt(ə)rɪ] — прижигание
cross-bladed scissors — крестообразные ножницы
speculas — зеркала
uninterrupted — непрерывный
Avicenna [ˌavɪˈsɛnə] — Авиценна
Answer the questions:
1. What medical beliefs do all human societies have?
2. What was used among the treatments of diseases in prehistoric medicine?
3. What did Egyptian medicine deal with?
4. What are the Babylonian doctors famous for?
5. What branches of medicine do Ayurvedic classics speak about?
6. Who laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine?
7. What did the Romans invent?
Read the text again. Divide it into logical parts, give titles to them (make up a
plan). Write out sentences expressing the main idea of each logical part. Condense
the sentences if possible. Write an abstract to the text using the plan and your
sentences.
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Text 2
Read the text.
Poisonous plants
Many trees and plants are poisonous, and a hazard for inquisitive youngsters
who are always putting things in their mouths. Naturally occurring poisons are concentrated in seeds and berries but leaves, flowers, sap and roots can contain a considerable amount. As a rule, unripe fruits are more dangerous than ripe ones.
The first thing a doctor will need to know is what and how much of the poisonous plant was eaten, when it was eaten, and what part of the plant was consumed.
They will also need to know how old the patient is and whether they have already
vomited after eating the plant. If possible, save what remains of the plant that was
eaten and let the doctor or hospital see it for identification purposes, as there are specific antidotes to certain plant poisons.
Garden plants that cause problems include laurel leaves and their black-currantlooking berries, both of which contain derivatives of cyanide. Lily of the Valley
flowers and berries contain a chemical which affects the rhythm of the heart, but fortunately the poison is poorly absorbed so its effects are rarely seen.
Other common culprits include Laburnum — whether in the form of seeds or
bright yellow flowers — which contains a chemical that poisons in the same way as
nicotine; wisteria pods, which bring on gastroenteritis, and lupin pods, which cause
vomiting and convulsions. Aconite (monkshood) is the most poisonous plant in Europe and it can kill. Few people realize that rhododendron seeds produce urinary and
gastroenteritis symptoms, such as pain when passing water, diarrhea and vomiting.
Poppies contain over 100 different kinds of addictive drugs, the most powerful
being the basic derivatives of morphine and codeine. As it is now well known, the
blue flowers of morning glory conceal the drug LSD, which produces horrific hallucinations.
Away from the garden and into the countryside, yew seeds are dangerous —
even lethal if chewed, while holly berries act as a purgative. Deadly nightshade is not
as bad as its name suggests — at least 10 or 12 berries are needed to produce diarrhea, headaches and abdominal pain but still should not be eaten. The foxglove —
famous for giving us the drug digitalis for heart failure and slowing the heart rate —
is not good for healthy hearts. Even the benign sounding buttercup should be avoided, as it belongs to the same family as monkshood and can cause blistering of the
mouth, colic and diarrhea.
Fungi such as wild mushrooms and toadstools are not often toxic if they are
cooked as the poisons are broken down by heat, but problems can arise if they are
eaten raw. However, the best protection against plant poisoning is knowing what is
dangerous and educating your children.
Write out all the names of poisonous plants from the text. Find their translation in a dictionary.
Why are these plants considered poisonous? Speak about the problems they
cause.
Write 10 special questions to the text.
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YOU HAVE TO KNOW
Слова, обозначающие боль
В английском языке различаются разные виды боли, и для них существуют
разные слова.
Боль, обозначаемая словом “pain”, может возникнуть сама по себе, она
может длиться очень долго, и её можно стерпеть.
For how long have you been experiencing this pain? — И давно у вас эта
боль?
Слово “hurt” обозначает причиняемую боль, рану. После устранения источника такой боли может как раз начаться “pain”.
I stepped on a nail and hurt my foot — Я наступил на гвоздь и поранил ногу.
It hurts to see them fighting — Больно смотреть, как они ссорятся.
Don't be scared, nobody will hurt you — Не бойся, никто тебя не тронет.
Также существует выражение "to get hurt" — пострадать:
Seven people got hurt in a car accident on the Maple Street today — Семеро
людей пострадало сегодня в аварии на Кленовой улице.
Есть ещё слово “ache”, которое является практически полным синонимом
“pain”, но употребляется чаще всего в медицинском смысле. Такая боль обычно
ассоциируется с телом и сосредоточена в его определённой части: earache,
toothache, stomachache.
What kind of headache hurts in the back of your skull? — Что это за головная
боль, которая возникает в задней части черепа?
Существительные “hurt” и “ache” могут также становиться и глаголами, а
вот “pain” не может, ему для этого потребуется слово “cause” (причинять):
He was hurting me on purpose — Он специально делал мне больно.
My burned hand ached for a week — У меня неделю обожжённая рука болела.
This procedure won't cause any pain — Эта процедура не причинит никакой боли.
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TEXT 3. AT THE MEDICAL INSTITUTE
Read, translate and learn the words:
care, responsibility, society, hostel, relative, scholarship, enter, entrance examination, increase, laboratory, library, ordinary, medical, article, foreign, join, scientific,
biology, chemistry, anatomy, physics, histology, heart, character, observant, course,
master, theoretical, analysis, nurse, therapeutic, surgical, practitioner
Read and translate the text:
Every year many young people who really care for medicine enter medical institutes and become students. A new life begins — it is the life of the adult who has the
responsibility for all his actions before the society.
Some students live in the hostel, others—with their relatives. Many students get
scholarship. If a student has “fives” in all the subjects at the entrance examinations,
he gets an increased scholarship.
The students work much in class, at the institute laboratories and libraries. As
the students want to become not ordinary but good doctors, they must рaу attention to
modern medical literature. It means that they must study not only their textbooks but
read many special medical articles in Russian and foreign languages.
Already in the first year some students join students’ scientific societies. There
they work on those subjects which they care for. It may be Biology, Chemistry or
Anatomy. In the Anatomy Scientific Society the subject of the students’ work may be
the study of the heart or other organs of the body. This work in the Scientific Societies will help future doctors to understand the character of many diseases better. It
will teach them to be more observant.
The course of studies is six years. During this period the students master the basis of theoretical and practical medicine.
For two years the students learn the so-called pre-clinical subjects, such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Human Anatomy, Histology and others. The students have
clinical subjects from the third to the fifth year. During the three-years’ period the
students learn to diagnose different diseases, to carry out laboratory analyses and to
treat people for these diseases.
At the end of the third year all the students have a six-weeks’ practical training.
During this period they work as nurses. After their 4th year the students have another
practical training. It lasts for eight weeks. During the second practical training they
work as doctors’ assistants at the therapeutic, surgical and other departments. After
the 5th year the students have a six-weeks’ practical training at a polyclinic. So in five
years’ the students gain the knowledge necessary for a general practitioner.
Glossary:
care for — интересоваться, заботиться;
have the responsibility for — нести ответственность за;
рaу attention to — уделять внимание;
carry out — проводить;
the so-called pre-clinical subjects — так называемые доклинические (теоре-
тические) предметы.
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