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Файл:Lexicology. Practical Course. Лексикология. Практический курс. Учебное пособие
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group and ethnic group in general at a later stage of its development in
relation to language processes, phenomena and structures. Ethnolinguistics
takes into account, first of all, specific – national, folk, tribal – features of
the ethnos and historically significant facts.
Ethnopsycholinguistics considers speech production in relation to the
national cultural specifics taking into account the national and cultural
component of discourse, and also explores ethnopsycholinguistic
determinism of linguistic consciousness and communication.
Linguoculturology is a discipline that studies the manifestation,
reflection and fixation of culture in language and discourse. In contrast to
ethnolinguistics, the focus is on problems of synchronous study of the
interaction of language and culture on the material of the literary language,
not dialects.
N.G. Komlev was one of the first Russian linguists who singled out the
cultural component in the semantic structure of the word. According to his
theory, the worldview component in the lexical meaning is closely linked to
the cultural component. The author emphasizes the reflection of people’s
worldview in the semantics, and often a completely arbitrary manner of
singling out of objects in extra-linguistic reality and their naming.
The relationship between cultural and national in the language is
intersecting, since not all culturally marked in the language is at the same
time ethno-specific, and vice-versa, because it can be similar for different
ethnic groups.
The essence of national culture, according to V.G. Kostomarov, is not
just defined by a set of unique features, characteristic of a given nation, but
a specific set of common human traits and ideas. A similar idea is at the
basis of the culture typology developed by Yu.M. Lotman, which comes
from recognition of the presence of seemingly the same elements in
different cultures, but the main thing is that these elements are included as
components in different systems.
Currently, linguoculturology is going through a stage of rapid
development due to the interaction of a number of factors: globalization of
world problems, the need to take into account universal and specific
characteristics of the behavior and communication of various peoples, the
need to know in advance those situations in which intercultural
misunderstanding is most likely, an integrative trend in the development of
the human sciences, the need to master the results obtained in related fields
of knowledge, the applied side of linguistic knowledge. Nevertheless,
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despite the above said, the majority of works in linguoculturology studied
mainly the so-called cultural vocabulary: non-equivalent, paremiological,
phraseological units and words with nationally specific connotative,
symbolic, mythological, сomponents.
2. CONDUITS OF ETHNOCULTURAL INFORMATION
IN THE LANGUAGE
There are two main aspects highlighted in this problem: specific carriers
of ethnocultural information in the language and methods of linking the
ethnocultural information to the language. Special category of units
performing this role have the culture-language vs. language-culture vector:
a cultureme – the totality of certain cultural signs expressed in linguistic
sign representing the connection between formal and meaningful sides and
related to a specific element of reality to express and designate some object
or situation. Linguocultureme – a complex inter-level unit, which is a
dialectical unity of the linguistic (generally accepted in linguistic
community, socially determined meaning) and extra-linguistic (scientific
and cultural reflection of the concerned subject) content.
Cultural connotation is the result of interpretation of the denotative or
figuratively motivated aspects of meaning in the categories of culture, that
is, concepts, stereotypes, symbols, mythologemes and other signs of
national and universal culture (V.N. Telia). The conduits of cultural
information are considered heterogeneous entities associated with both
linguistic units, discourse, and background knowledge providing the
possibility of successful communication.
The mechanism of connotation is associated with the strengthening of
certain aspects of meaning (often due to the bright internal form of the
word, on the basis of which the most stable associations arise).
Associations, at the same time, form a motivating basis for the emergence of
connotations, the direct meaning of the word acts as an internal form in
relation to the figurative.
Usually, certain signs are singled out from the denotation, the image of
which appears in the internal form of the connotative word. The
consolidation of associative signs in the meaning of the word, i.e. the
emergence of connotation is a national-cultural process, it does not obey the
logic of common sense (for example, it is the fox, who is considered
cunning, and not the donkey).
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There are different answers to the question of what is the carrier of
cultural information in the language: 1) it is a complex interlevel unit, the
content of which combines linguistic and extralinguistic content; 2) it is a
sign of culture expressed in language, in which the linguistic sign is the
denotation, and the realia is the signification; 3) this is a category of units
that have any associative-figurative base expressing a certain symbol; 4) this
is any language sign of the linguocultural code with a cultural marking that
gives to linguistic phenomena national tones; 5) this is background
knowledge reflected in linguistic units.
General cultural content of correlated units is determined by similarity
in the referential aspect, that is attribution to similar objects of reality, in the
same set of components and their organization in the significativedenotative block, similar lexical connotations (semantic level), a similar
view of the object and its assessment (ethnocultural parameter). The
boundaries of general cultural vocabulary, is advisable to determine, taking
into account the field organization of the language system. It matches the
lexical core, which is formed by the basic meanings of content parts of
speech.
Specific cultural vocabulary is formed at the level of minor meanings
of units correlated in two languages, which lie outside the lexical core and
reveal discrepancies in one or more of the above mentioned parameters.
Unique cultural vocabulary is presented either by linguistic realities,
or not matching meanings of lexical correspondences that form the lexical
periphery.
At the level of deep semantics, localized within individual meanings of
correlated units, there are cases of complete or partial similarity, as well as
cases of lack of comparable similarities. General cultural meanings can be
localized in deep semantics of different categories, including the so called
closed unions such as kinship terms. For example, English and Russian
words “mother” at this level show a number of similarities, namely general
cultural meanings (used when speaking to an old woman), similar cultural
associations and images (mother love, Mother-Earth), cultural connotations
(mother-naked).
Specific cultural meanings are also formed on the deep level with
individual meanings, but unlike general cultural, they have a certain
specificity, e.g. specific cultural meanings (god-mother – крёстная мать),
cultural-value associations and images (тёщин язык – mother-in-law’s
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tongue), cultural connotations (с молоком матери – to learn at one’s
mother’s breast).
Unique cultural meanings are inherent in either deep semantics of
linguistic realities, or unique elements having unique ethnocultural identity
(мать-героиня, Mother’s Day, every mother’s son, mother and toddler
group), unique cultural associations and images (мать родная не узнает,
want is the mother of industry, Mother Hubbard – a long, wide, loose gown
with long sleeves and a high neck originally introduced by Christian
missionaries), unique cultural connotations (показать кузькину мать, the
Mother of Presidents (Ohio), the Mother of Parliaments (England).
To study the features of the content structure that can cause the cultural
shock in communication, it is advisable to identify national and cultural
specifics at different levels of content, taking into account the conceptual,
connotative and subject-empirical levels.
At the level of the conceptual component, ethnocultural specificity in
the most obvious form is found in naming of the ethnic group attributes,
sociocultural and ethno-mental phenomena traditionally studied as a part of
realities and non-equivalent vocabulary. The presence of ethnocultural
specifics in correspondences traditionally qualified as equivalent is less
visible. In English, nationality – national status, especially a legal
relationship involving allegiance on the part of an individual and usually
protection on the part of the state means nationality of a person, while its
Russian matching национальность refers to belonging to any nation,
nationality. Hence, the word nationality in passport means citizenship, and
Russian национальность corresponds to English ethnic group.
Equivalent proverbs in English and Russian languages “do not put new
wine into old bottles” and “не вливают вино молодое в мехи старые”
shows a slightly different semantic filling in two cultures. English proverb
has an equivalent to play dance music at a funeral (to combine
incompatible), which has nothing to do with the meaning of the
corresponding Russian proverb “you cannot create something new, not
destroying the old one”.
Analysis of vocabulary equivalents якобы and allegedly shows that the
English word has more “accusatory bias” than in its Russian
correspondence, which is associated with an expression of uncertainty about
the reliability of the reported facts.
English phrase public relations with a clearly expressed positive
assessment (the promotion of goodwill between an organization etc. and the
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general public; the goodwill resulting from such activity) entered the
Russian speech in the form of пиар, often acquiring negative connotations
in the sphere of political manipulators’ activity.
2.1. MULTI-VECTOR TRENDS
IN THE SEMANTIC CULTURAL SPACE
Different forms of meaning actualization shows multi-vector trends in
the semantic cultural space:
• the emergence of new ethnocultural meanings, associated with a
radical reassessment of the system values, major changes in social
development, changes in principles organizing and improving the living
environment, etc. For example, the term reset (computer reset button) got
new political meaning in the context of Russian and American international
relations.
• suppression of ethnocultural meanings under the influence of a
changed environment, value orientations and attitudes in the new
generation. For example, tolerance in English society had positive
connotation – the attitude of someone who is willing to accept someone
else's beliefs, way of life, etc., without criticizing them even if they disagree
with them. At the end of the 20th century, there is an increase in crime,
which led to the consolidation of a new phrase zero tolerance stressing the
need to avoid the universal principle of tolerance in certain situations: the
policy or practice of not tolerating undesirable behavior, such as violence
or illegal drug use, policy that accepts no mitigating circumstances for
improper behavior.
• reanimating of ethnocultural meanings, displaced by others or
forgotten, but updated in a new cultural and historical setting. For example,
the administration of President F.D. Roosevelt developed a new course
“New Deal” to save the country during the Great depression. The meaning
of this expression has become especially acutely perceived during the global
financial and economic crisis 2008-2009, as evidenced by its reanimating in
44 American President’s speeches in old clichés in new conditions: the
spirit of America (our enduring spirit), that faith speaks to us in our daily
lives, freedom from fear (we have chosen hope over fear), out of every crisis
mankind rises with greater knowledge, higher decency, etc.
• reassignment of ethno-cultural meanings, forming within the
framework of different ethnic cultures, which either receive a revaluation
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(towards improvement or deterioration), or face collision of opposing
evaluative semantic connotations of related units: for example, a watchdog
of democracy – in English linguistic culture has positive meaning of
“careful monitoring of the democratic process violations”, which in the
Russian culture has negative meaning – цепной пёс демократии.
• borrowing of ethno-cultural meanings from someone else's cultural
space in conditions of globalization. Many European languages borrowed
the American usage of the word “Teflon” (with the meaning refractory) in
relation to politicians, governments, presidents: the mayor is famous for
distancing himself from whatever may have gone wrong. He is known as
the teflon mayor.
• broadcasting ethnocultural meanings to other linguistic cultures. For
example, the Russian word интеллигенция actualizes ideas and meanings
difficult to translate into Anglo-Saxon culture. Judging by the lexicographic
interpretation of a word in different dictionaries, these specific meanings
were not “captured” in full by the compilers, moreover, different authors
suggested not always the same semantic interpretation of a word:
intellectuals associated with the revolutionary movement; social stratum
consisting of people who belong to upper-middle classes; the class of
society to which culture, superior intelligence and advanced political views
are attributed; regarded as capable of forming public opinion; the part of
nation that aspires to independent thinking, etc.
• migration of socio-cultural meanings into intracultural space from
one sphere to another. This phenomenon underlies the emergence of the socalled secondary, or metaphorical, meanings. In English the meaning of
many political words and expressions is often borrowed from the semantic
spaces of units serving special field of human activity and reflected in
medical, nuclear, biological and other terminology. Among the most
popular are ethnocultural meanings associated with the concept of family
and relationships between near and far relatives: European common house,
returning home after wandering in the east, return to the European family,
fathers of the European reunification, poorer cousins, anything but a happy
family.
Due to the semantic ambivalence of many units, significant load falls on
the environment performing the function of minimal cultural and semantic
context, necessary and sufficient for correct interpretation of ethnocultural
meanings. Cultural context is a level-structured collection of all culturally
significant information contained in the text.
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Cultural connotation refers to the field of ethnocultural subjective
meanings, which includes different components and different structure.
Macmillan English Dictionary includes a great deal of cultural information,
and lists the following three categories under the heading Cultural Values:
• sociocultural competence, understood as awareness of how
communication is affected by behavior, traditions, beliefs of people,
belonging to different cultures;
• cultural resonance, defined as cultural connotations of words, which
may differ in different cultural groups;
• cultural reference, including references to knowledge and experience
that are common to a certain group in a given culture: cultural, literary,
biblical allusions, as well as humor and irony.
Sociocultural competence includes not only knowledge of basic speech
functions, but also thematic areas in which it is required to turn special
attention to the choice of linguistic units: national-ethnic and racial groups,
gender, age, diseases and disabilities, sexual orientation, use of names and
titles. For example, close semantics of bottle up / hide one’s feelings show
cultural assessment of human behavior, disapproving in the first – to stop
yourself from showing negative feelings especially over a long period, so
that these feelings develop in a harmful way and lack of evaluative comment
in the second – to not allow people to know what you are thinking or
feeling.
Cultural resonance is narrowly interpreted as it relates only to the
linguistic connotation that accompanies the denotative content. It deals with
deep cultural connotations, which are significant in a certain period of time
and for a specific group, e.g. the name of a sports game cricket in those
countries where it is played, makes fans think about patriotism, fair
refereeing, sports rivalry, etc.
Cultural reference, or cultural allusions, are interpreted too broadly,
covering literary, biblical names and plots, as well as cultural symbols,
images, associations, humor and irony. As an example, the word bulldog is
given as “a symbol of England or Britain because of its qualities of
determination and its fighting ability”. The same with the metaphorical
meanings, e.g. Whitehall – stands for all the officials in the British
government; the Square Mile – stands for the financial services industry.
Ethnocultural approach to cultural connotation allows you to
represent it in the form of primary ethnocultural and secondary
connotations (derived from primary). The essence of the primary ethno-
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cultural connotations is that in the process of learning the world, people
single out a certain subject, show their attitude towards it and fix the
assessment in name, which forms the zone of primary connotation in the
content of the language sign. This cultural information shows how
phenomena are fixed in the linguistic meanings, and what kind of
assessment is fixed in the public consciousness. For example, English cabin
reflects quantitative (small), qualifying (wooden) and evaluative (simple,
roughly built) primary connotation. The primary connotations of its Russian
correspondence хижина differ: quantitative (small), qualifying (modest
dwelling; fishing hut), evaluative (poor house; black from old age), locative
(usually in Ukraine or southern Russia).
Secondary connotations are based on primary cultural connotations, e.g.
the English (log) cabin developed secondary positive connotations
associated with the name of the sixteenth President Abraham Lincoln, who
was born in a wooden cabin. Further generalization is a result of the
metaphorical transfer of the name on any president / politician (log cabin
president / politician), declaring that he came from the bottom and is ready
to defend the interests of common people.
3. TRANSLATION STRATEGIES FOR THE
ETHNOCULTURAL INFORMATION TRANSFERRING
Translation strategy is a kind of communicative strategy, and in
relation to discourse, it can be viewed as characteristic of the cognitive plan:
this is planning of the translator's speech activity in the most generalized
form depending on the communicative intention, goal and communicative
situation. Translation tactic is a component of the translation strategy, it
represents a set of actions aimed at achieving the global goal, inherent in the
strategy. Translation tactics are implemented through a set of translation
techniques and methods. These include specific operations designed to
solve arising in the process of translation difficulties.
There are two fundamental translation strategies, which are radically
different from each other in the translator's optimal approach to the
transmission of the original text: to provide cultural and linguistic identity
of the original text, or cultural and linguistic neutralization. In the
specialized literature, the first strategy is known as the alienating strategy,
and the second as a domesticating strategy. Among the translation tactics
in the first variant will prevail the following: to reproduce units of the
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semantic level as accurately and fully as possible, conveying the specifics of
formal characteristics of the text. The second one allows the translator to
use translation techniques designed to accommodate the formal-content
characteristics of the text to the expectations of the reader, thereby
facilitating the reception of the text in a different ethnic environment.
3.1. THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE
FROM ETHNOCULTURAL POSITIONS
Founders of translation theory spoke out against the absolutization of
the term equivalent, because strictly speaking, there is no such thing as
identical equivalents. The number of mutually equivalent words even in
closely related languages will be equal to zero when considering the
equivalence in the onomasiological, semasiological and epidigmatic aspects
of meaning. Therefore, to solve this problem, the authors suggest to use the
term equivalence differentially, speaking about correspondences that reveal
maximum coincidence in the composition and content of semantic
characteristics included in the structure of meanings. There are three main
lexical levels: 1) names with easily found correspondences, e.g. river, tree,
etc.; 2) names denoting objects that are different in different cultures, but
approximately the same in their functions and characteristics, e.g. English
tea; 3) the names of various specific attributes of culture, e.g., a pint (a unit
of volume 568.2 ml).
3.2. EQUIVALENT CORRESPONDENCES: DEFINITION,
CLASSIFICATION, TYPES OF EQUIVALENTS
Equivalent correspondences are defined as constant regular dictionary
correspondences which are used in translation irrespective of a context and
are interchangeable with each other in all their uses. It is argued that
equivalents are usually found among compound words and wordcombinations and are very rare among simple words, e.g. dog-collar –
ошейник, to take the floor – взять слово. To equivalents the linguists refer
proper and geographic names, terms and some common nouns.
Equivalents can be further divided into groups if we take into account
denotational and connotational components of lexical meaning: when only
denotational component of correspondences is compared it is possible to
speak about full and partial equivalents. Full equivalents are such
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equivalents which coincide fully in their denotational meaning: mass media –
средства массовой информации, gossip column – светская
хроника. Partial equivalents are such equivalents which coincide in some
of their meanings, and differ in others and so they are interchangeable only
in some of their contexts. Usually partial equivalents are found among
polysemantic words: the word-group silver plate can be translated as
1) серебряная пластинка, 2) серебряное блюдо, 3) столовое серебро.
All these three correspondences should be treated as partial equivalents as
they are used to translate different meanings of this polysemantic word.
When not only denotational, but also connotational component of
lexical meaning is taken into account equivalents are classified
into absolute and relative. Absolute equivalents coincide fully both in their
denotational and connotational meanings, e.g. hydrocarbons –
углеводороды, nitrogen dioxide – двуокись азота; to kick the bucket (sl) –
окочуриться (сл., вульг.). Relative equivalents coincide in English and
Russian in their denotational meaning, but differ in connotational
component, e.g. гэбист (разг.) – KGBer (neutral).
There are several points connected with equivalent correspondences that
have been criticized by some scholars. The first restriction concerns the use
of the term equivalent which should not be understood as complete identity
of content. Even proper names and terms are liable to have some nuances of
meaning which are often culturally relevant. These nuances of meaning are
often revealed in derivatives and combinatorial capacity: the English name
Canterbury enters the phrase to tell Canterbury tales which acquires a
metaphorical sense associated with the knowledge of the respective
narrative. The Russian correspondence рассказывать нескончаемые
скучные истории retains only part of the connotations, while very
important connotation implied in the English phrase “these stories are
especially famous for bawdy humour”, is not conveyed.
Variant correspondences are a set of dictionary correspondences in
target language used to translate, depending on a context, one and the same
meaning of a source language unit of translation: e.g. writing paper –
писчая бумага, writing desk - письменный стол, the writing profession –
пишущая братия. The analysis shows that meanings that are translated by
variant correspondences prove to be general and broad in source language
and have to be specified or concretized in target language. These
correspondences are usually related in meaning and often form synonymic
sets. The translator is confronted with a task of the proper choice of the
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