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Файл:Lexicology. Practical Course. Лексикология. Практический курс. Учебное пособие
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homographs is thus facilitated through the use of innovative design
features.
For its development modern lexicography depends on further use of
computer corpora providing authentic data and texts of real English. Its
progress also presupposes the criterion of new devices helping learners to
use English actively and to the best advantage.
5. TERMINOLOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY
Terminological lexicography seeks to present a systematic description
of the exact names of special (specialized) concepts and phenomena as part
of a given branch of knowledge.
Terminography is concerned with the making of specialized
(professional language) dictionaries. Its purpose is not to create new terms,
but to prevent the confusion of existing ones by means of compiling
glossaries of special (technical) names within a given subject-field.
Terminological dictionaries are always written by use of the
contrastive method, and usually of a very strict variety of it: only the
technical terms themselves are accepted as entries and in the case of
polysemous words, only the technical-terminological meanings are
indicated, the other, non-terminological senses, being passed over in silence.
DICTIONARIES RECOMMENDED
General Purpose Dictionaries
1. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 6-ed, (OUP).
2. Cambridge International Dictionary of English, CIDE (CUP).
3. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 3-ed.
4. COBUILD Dictionary of English Language, 2-ed.
5. The Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, 2-ed.
6. Новый большой англо-русский словарь, под общ. рук.
Ю.Д. Апресяна.
7. Русско-английский словарь, под ред. А.И. Смирницкого.
Specialist (specialized) Dictionaries
1. The English Pronouncing Dictionary by D. Jones.
2. The Longman Pronouncing Dictionary.
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3. The Dictionary of American Pronunciation.
4. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology.
5. The Cambridge Dictionary of Neologisms.
6. The Oxford Dictionary of New Words.
7. The Longman Register of New Words.
8. The Longman Usage Dictionary.
9. The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English.
10. The Longman Dictionary of Common Errors.
11. The Dictionary of Modern English Usage.
12. The COBUILD Dictionary of Usage.
13. The Longman Dictionary of Scientific Usage.
14. The Longman Language Activator.
15. The Longman Essential Activator.
16. The Dictionary of Usage and Abusage.
17. The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English.
18. The LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations.
19. The Oxford Collocations Dictionary.
20. Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English. Oxford.
21. Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Collocations on CD-ROM.
Glasgow.
22. The Webster Dictionary of Synonyms.
23. Roget’s Thesaurus.
24. The Oxford Thesaurus.
25. The COLLINS’ Thesaurus.
26. The Longman Dictionary of English Idioms.
27. The Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms.
28. The COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms.
29. The NTC Dictionary of American Idioms.
30. The Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs.
31. The Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs.
32. The Cambridge Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs.
33. The COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs.
34. The Dictionary of American Spoken English and Slang.
35. A New Dictionary of American Slang.
36.
The Longman Dictionary of Quotations.
37. The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations.
38. The Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture.
39. The Oxford Dictionary of the World.
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40. Англо-русский синонимический словарь.
41. Англо-русский словарь сочетаемости. Сост. С.К. Фоломкина.
42. Англо-русский словарь американского сленга.
43. Основные идиомы американского английского (Essential
American Idioms for Russian Speakers).
44. Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. Сост. А.В. Кунин.
45. Русско-английский словарь идиом. Сост. С. Лубенская.
46. Англо-русский словарь фразовых глаголов. (Основан на the
Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs).
Online Dictionaries
1. http://www.study.ru Словари английского языка и другие ресурсы
для изучающих английский язык.
2. http://www.dictionary.com Словари английского языка, тезаурус,
система машинного перевода.
3. http://www.merriamwebster.com Словари издательства Merriam-
Webster.
4. http://www.lingvo.ru/lingvo/index.asp Переводные онлайн словари
общелитературной лексики, словари компьютерной, юридической,
медицинской, экономической терминологии, политехнический
словарь.
5. http://www.yourdictionary.com Портал словарей (лингвистические,
терминологические словари английского языка.
6. http://www.encyclopedia.com/glossary.htm Еncyclopedia Dictionary
and Glossary.
7. http://www.britannica.com Еncyclopedia Вritannica.
8. http://www.encarta.msn.com Еncyclopedia Еncarta.
9. http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/contents.
htm Glossary оf Linguistic Terms.
10. http://termbank.sdu.dk/ Termbank.
11. http://www.rambler.ru/dict/ Новый большой англо-русский
словарь /под ред. Ю.Д. Апресяна и Э.М. Медниковой.
QUESTIONS
1. What is modern English Lexicography like?
2. What does Corpus-(based) Linguistics deal with?
3. What is Computational Linguistics?
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4. What do you know about English Corpora?
5. What opportunities does a compiler get due to corpora?
6. What does Computational Lexicography deal with?
7. What are the most significant differences between electronic and
conventional dictionaries?
8. What are the main characteristics of learner’s monolingual
dictionaries?
9. In what types of dictionaries are the aspects of vocabulary
represented?
10. What types of electronic dictionaries can be singled out?
11. What does Terminological Lexicography deal with?
12. What is Terminography concerned with?
13. What is the terminological dictionary like?
14. What are special features of compiling terminological dictionaries?
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15. IDEOGRAPHIC DICTIONARIES
1. Ideographic Dictionaries
2. Principles of the Thesauri Classification
2.1. Classification by the Type of Semantic Links Between Units of the
Vocabulary
2.2. Types of Ideographic Thesauri
KEY TERMS
Ideographic dictionary, lexico-semantic group, invariant meaning,
variant meaning, thematic group, ideographic group, analogical thesaurus,
associative thesaurus, topical / thematic connections, lexico-semantic
connections, semantic-syntactic connections, ideographic dictionary proper,
thematic dictionary, systematic dictionary, thematic-systematic dictionary,
analogical dictionary proper, dictionary of synonyms / antonyms,
associative dictionary of one presentation, associative thesaurus proper,
general thesaurus, special thesaurus, cumulative thesaurus, definitive
thesaurus, translated thesaurus, combined dictionary.
1. IDEOGRAPHIC DICTIONARIES
Language, as a system of signs constitutes an organic unity with our
thinking. Thinking reflects a dynamic process of human's cognition of
reality and forms human’s knowledge. Therefore, knowledge is the product
of human understanding of objects and phenomena, it is imprinted in words.
A collection of words can be considered as a reflection of reality, which is
not a chaotic conglomeration of separate facts. In fact, we tend to see the
structure. As our knowledge of the world is constantly evolving, so far the
lexical system is continually changing. New words are not mechanically
added to the existing ones, but are placed in the previously formed system in
our mind. This system, of course, must be to a certain extent similar to the
system of reality. Considering the question of the ways of words
arrangement in the dictionary, it can be argued that the very nature of words
allows the possibility of their ambiguous grouping:
a) by adjacency of sounding;
b) by semantic affinity.
The implementation of the first possibility leads to the creation of
alphabetical dictionaries. The strong point of these dictionaries is that they
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provide a considerable flexibility in inquiring of different references of any
word known to us by sounding. This fact and the exceptional ease of
alphabetical arrangement of words led to the predominant status of
alphabetical dictionaries. Considerations of practical convenience
overshadow the idea that the system of alphabetically arranged words
doesn’t correlate with the system of our knowledge. An alternative to
alphabetical arrangement of words is their placement by semantic proximity –
in ideographic dictionaries (from the Greek idea – concept, idea, image,
and grapho – to write).
Vocabulary of any language is represented for each of its informants in
two form: active and passive. The first one includes words of everyday use,
the words that we do not have to look for in the corners of the memory, as
soon as there is a need to name the appropriate phenomenon. These words
are always with us. The relationship between the signifier and the signified,
between the sound form of the word and its concept for the words of active
vocabulary can be symbolically written as S ↔ C, which means that there is
an effective two-way relationship from the sound to the concept and from
the concept to the sound. Passive vocabulary includes the words, meaning
of which we know, but which are not our everyday words. We recognize
them in writing or in the speech of interlocutor, but they do not come to
mind immediately, as soon as we have a need for them, i.e. they do not help
us to form a judgment. Here, the relationship between the sound form and
the concept is written as S → C, indicating the existence of effective
relationship in only one direction – from the sound to the concept. The
backward relationship is very much weakened or even broken.
But even speaking of the active layer, it must be admitted that the
relationship from the sound to the concept S → C is much more reliable and
shorter. Denomination is a much more difficult (in comparison with
understanding), and much more prone to error, which was convincingly
confirmed by experience in the work of J. Casares.
The point is that if we believe that a book that helps us to understand a
speech or writing (alphabetical dictionary) is extremely useful, it is no less
essential than the book, which provides us with the entire set of words
united by some idea that would facilitate an active grasp of the language
(ideographic dictionary). In this regard, English scientist P.M. Roget, the
author of “Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases”, wrote in the preface
to his dictionary: “... However distinct may be our views, however vivid our
conceptions, or however fervent our emotions, we cannot but be often
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conscious that the phraseology we have at our command is inadequate to do
them justice. We seek in vain the words we need, and strive ineffectually to
devise forms of expression which shall faithfully portray our thoughts and
sentiments. The appropriate terms, notwithstanding our utmost efforts,
cannot be conjured up at will. Like ‘spirits from the vasty deep,’ they come
not when we call; and we are driven to the employment of a set of words
and phrases either too general or too limited, too strong or too feeble, which
suit not the occasion, which hit not the mark we aim at. The assistance it
gives (ideographic dictionary) is that of furnishing on every topic a copious
of store of words and phrases, adapted to express all the recognizable shades
and modifications of the general idea under which those words and phrases
are arranged”.
Most of the authors of existing ideographic dictionaries after P.M. Roget
limit importance of their work by considerations of the ease of the choosing
of the most appropriate words to adequately express the thoughts. Such a
purely pragmatic point of view, clearly underestimates the true significance
of dictionary of this type. The same, if not greater, importance they have for
various lexicological and ethnographical inquiries. The need for ideographic
dictionary is felt primarily in the comparative study of the vocabularies of
different languages. Thinking has universal nature. The semantic
continuum is common for all languages. However, each individual
language segments this continuum specifically. The analytical power and
the level of development of the language are characterized by a degree of
verbal detail of each part of this continuum. Thus, the study of the nature of
meaningful segment representation of the semantic continuum is an
important task of comparative lexicology. The ideographic dictionary
provides researcher with the whole group of words that correspond to
certain idea. It makes possible to predict the various syntactic and semantic
changes.
The entire vocabulary can be represented as a system of interlinked and
overlapping groups, distinguished on the basis of various semantic criteria.
The possibility of describing vocabulary in the form of a combination of
many particular word systems was discussed already in linguistic works of
the 19th century.
The lexico-semantic group (LSG) combines lexical units based on the
invariance feature. An invariant meaning is the meaning that is common to
all members of the group. Variant meaning is the meaning of one or
another lexical unit included in the group. It includes both the invariant
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meaning and the components of the meaning inherent only to this unit. For
example, the invariant meaning of the word tree unites the words: pine,
spruce, ash, birch, yew, etc.
The invariant meaning of the words in LSG is more generalized than
that of the words of the synonymous series. As a result, the meanings of the
words in LSG can be quite far from each other, the words themselves are
not interchangeable, like synonyms. For example, the words black, white,
red, blue, green are combined in the LSG by the invariant meaning of
colour, but they are in no way synonymous, it is an open set of words of one
part of speech.
A thematic group is a network of lexical units used in communication
on a specific topic. The basis for the integration of the thematic group is the
connection of objects of the real world. It fixes not so much the connections
of words as the connections of extralinguistic objects and phenomena, e.g.
the words used when shopping in a store: shopping, shopper, to buy, to sell,
discounts, sale, fashionable, old-fashioned, to fit, size and many others.
Ideographic groups are words of different parts of speech associated
with the expression of one concept, e.g. a group of words associated with
the expression of the concept of darkness: darkness, dark, black, blаcknеѕѕ,
tо dаrkеn, dim, shadow, shade, unilluminated, starless, moonless, dusk,
twilight, night, etc. All these words have a common component of meaning
– dark. In this regard, we can talk about the invariance of the meaning of the
units included in the ideographic group, as well as when considering the
meanings of the words forming the LSG. The difference between an
ideographic group and a lexico-semantic group is that it combines words of
different parts of speech.
The arrangement of words into groups related by semantic bonds will
make it possible to some extent to solve the problem of synonyms and
antonyms dictionary compiling. The semantic structure of the word includes
it in the system of themes, which can be divided into subtopics. The
proximity of the words within a certain thematic group is different. The
limit of this thematic proximity is synonymic series, i.e. within a thematic
group synonymous series will be deliberately exhausted. On the other hand,
a reasonable contraposition of words supposes that they belong to the same
thematic group, so it will be at the same time the most complete dictionary
of antonyms.
Besides this, ideographic dictionary will provide the basis for creation
of Russian-Foreign and Foreign-Russian dictionaries. It shows that some
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thing, denominated by a single word in one language, may have extremely
detailed nomenclature enclosing dozens of names in another language. The
words, which are identical in meaning, may occupy unequal position even
in the systems of closely related languages, they perform different function
and are not absolutely monosemantic.
Use of the word implies its choice from a variety of semantically related
words. The semantic meaning of each word is in inverse proportion to the
number of words in the set, and is in direct proportion to the length of the
segment of the semantic continuum that covers the set. This fact is a ground
for one of the fundamental points of the linguistic theory of Ferdinand de
Saussure – the linguistic value of language signs. Language is a system of
interdependent signs in which the value of each sign results solely from the
simultaneous presence of the others. Being part of a system, the word is
endowed not only with a signification but also and especially with a value,
and this is something quite different. Within the same language, all words
used to express related ideas limit each other reciprocally. The value
of any sign is accordingly determined by its environment. Thus, in order
to correlate the word of one language with a word of another language, it
is necessary to know what position each of these words occupies in
the corresponding sets. To know this, you need a good ideographic
dictionary.
Ideographic dictionary is of great importance in the study of the human
knowledge history. If we superimpose thematically organized vocabulary of
the same language of different epochs, we will see an objective picture of
the human knowledge evolution. One theme is growing while another one is
shrinking; we will see the reappraisal of things; how words and facts are
appearing and relegating to oblivion. Being to some extent as a mirror of the
epoch, the vocabulary of language reflects the level of people's ideas about
some events, and sometimes characterizes the phenomena themselves. Even
glimpse of the thematic classification adopted in one of the most ancient
ideographic dictionaries of “Amarakosha” gives ground for estimating the
degree of development of science and social order, beliefs and artistic
thinking, typical for that distant age.
The history of lexicography shows that the onomasiological
representation of vocabulary seemed reasonable and justified to the
compilers of dictionaries, therefore this principle was recorded in the
“Vulgaria” dictionary (1519) by V. Horman and R. Whittington. J. Vithals
in his “Dictionary for young boys” (1553), where he organizes groups in
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close thematic connection with each other, which makes the dictionary
convenient for students.
The next stage in the development of lexicography of the XVIII-XIX
is the compilation of dictionaries of synonyms by J. Trasler (1776),
E.L. Piyozzi (1794), V. Taylor (1813), N. Webster (1859) and others.
One of the most authoritative ideographic reference books of the 19th
century is “Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases” by P.M. Roger (1852) –
a dictionary consisting of eight thematic classes, divided into subclasses,
gave rise to the development of ideography – the lexicography of lexical
units, joined by a common sense. P. Boissier developed this idea in the
reference book “Analogous Dictionary of the French Language” (1862),
which gave 2000 of the most common words introducing thematic groups.
With the increased interest in the study of foreign languages, the number
of educational ideographic dictionaries aimed at teaching and, accordingly,
including translation into the native language, also increases.
2. PRINCIPLES OF THE THESAURI CLASSIFICATION
The problem of compiling a classification of thesauri is not new, and for
several decades it has attracted the attention of a number of domestic and
foreign linguists (V.V. Morkovkin, L.P. Stupin, K. Marello and others). The
result of research in this area was the creation of alternative classifications
for these lexicographic works. This classification is based mainly on the
material of modern thesauri of the English language, taking into account the
newly appeared lexicographic works, presented in print and electronic
versions. This classification is based on the following criteria:
1. Type of semantic connections between vocabulary units;
2. The volume of the vocabulary;
3. Generalization of vocabulary;
4. Analysis of the meaning of lexemes;
5. Grammar and stylistic qualification of lexemes;
6. Demonstration of the functioning of lexemes;
7. Number of languages represented;
8. Type of semiotic means used for the semantization of lexemes.
The terminology used in the classification was introduced into
the lexicographic apparatus of V.V. Morkovkin, Yu.N. Karaulov,
I. Burkhanov and K. Marello. The classification criteria were formulated by
O.M. Karpova and I.A. Vorontsova.
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