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Файл:Lexicology. Practical Course. Лексикология. Практический курс. Учебное пособие
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2.1. CLASSIFICATION BY THE TYPE
OF SEMANTIC LINKS BETWEEN UNITS OF THE VOCABULARY
For the most complete display of the types of existing dictionaries there
is a multilevel classification of thesauri.
Firstly, by the type of semantic links between units of the vocabulary,
thesauri are subdivided into three major classes:
1. Ideographic (ideological) thesaurus;
2. Analogical thesaurus (terminology of V.V. Morkovkin);
3. Associative thesaurus (terminology of Yu.N. Karaulov).
These three types of thesauri reflect the following types of semantic
connections of lexemes, respectively:
1. Topical or thematic connections, where the combination of words
into one group occurs due to the similarity or commonality of the functions
of objects and processes indicated by words: household items, body parts,
types of clothing, buildings, etc. In this way, an ideographic thesaurus is a
lexicographic work that represents lexical units within thematic groups and
organizes them into a hierarchical structure designed to represent
conceptualized knowledge about the world.
2. Lexico-semantic connections – unification into groups with this type
of connection occurs according to the main feature of words – lexical
meaning. This also takes into account the lexico-grammatical links as a
form in which the individual meanings of words are realized. Thus, an
analogous thesaurus is a lexicographic reference book, the basic unit of the
macrostructure of which is the lexico-semantic group; the groups are
systematized in the alphabetical order of semantic dominants.
3. Semantic-syntactic connections, on the basis of which words are
combined into groups or pairs, predetermined in their origin and existence
by double relations: semantic and syntactic. The semantic connections of
words are established, the main way, between verbs and adjectives that
perform a predicative function in a sentence, and nouns, for example, between
the action and the organ (instrument) with which it is performed: to grab –
hand, to see – eye, to swim – boat, etc. Between action verbs requiring one
subject, and subject: to bark – dog, to neigh – horse, etc. Between the verbs
and a certain grammatical complement, which the former require: to hew –
wood, to eat – food, etc. Hence, an associative thesaurus is a dictionary that
organizes lexical units based on the semantic and syntactic links and
arranging groups in accordance with the graphic form of word centers.
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2.2. TYPES OF IDEOGRAPHIC THESAURI
The ideographic thesaurus within the framework of the same criterion is
represented by the following 4 types:
1. Ideographic dictionary (proper);
2. Thematic dictionary;
3. Systematic dictionary;
4. Thematic-systematic dictionary (terminology of I. Burkhanov).
The ideographic dictionary (proper) is a special type of ideographic
vocabulary, the macrostructure of which is organized in accordance with the
synoptic map a priori, imposed on the lexical composition of the language.
Unlike other types of ideographic vocabulary, the ideographic dictionary
(proper) is characterized by a logical and strictly arranged classification
structure based on scientific taxonomy, even if the general vocabulary is
subject to lexicographic description.
A thematic dictionary is a special type of thesaurus, the main unit of
the macrostructure of which is a thematic group, which includes lexemes
combined on the basis of the classification of their denotations (referents)
and considered from the point of view of their relevance to a specific topic.
The presence of a synoptic map – a schema of classes and their
subdivisions – in the thematic dictionary is optional. Thematic dictionaries,
as a rule, are created to meet the needs of foreign languages users, therefore
the list of topics in such a dictionary is determined by the degree of their
importance in the user's communicative space.
A systematic dictionary is a special type of thesaurus, the classification
structure of which is intended to represent the actual semantic relations that
exist between the lexical units of the language. At its core, the classification
structure is a lexico-grammatical classification of the vocabulary, in other
words, its paradigmatic structure, described in terms of subordination and
composition.
A thematic-systematic dictionary is a special type of ideographic
dictionary, which is a combination of a thematic and systematic dictionary.
The analogical thesaurus is subdivided into 2 types:
1. Analogical dictionary (proper);
2. Dictionary of synonyms / antonyms.
This division is considered to be valid on the following basis: the
limitation of lexical-semantic groups can be carried out along the entire
semantic volume of a given word or along the line of only some of its
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meanings. Words in similar semantic relations that intersect in one meaning
form a synonymous row, which is always less in volume than the lexicosemantic group. Thus, a dictionary reflecting purely synonymic / antonymic
relations of words can be considered a separate type of analogical thesaurus
(dictionary of synonyms, antonyms).
The associative thesaurus is also subdivided into subtypes:
1. An associative dictionary of one presentation;
2. Associative thesaurus (proper).
Their fundamental difference is as follows:
a) The number of stimuli in associative dictionaries 100 – 200; in
associative thesauri – about 1000.
b) An ordinary associative dictionary is built on the basis of the results
of a single presentation of stimuli; the program for compiling an associative
thesaurus provides for three stages: the first stage does not differ from
traditional associative experiments (the results create an ordinary associative
dictionary); at the second stage, the reactions of the first stage are used as
stimuli; the third stage involves a repetition of the second stage procedure
using the reactions of this stage as stimuli.
The associative semantic space after the third stage is closed, since there
is no increment of new words and meanings in the reactions. Thus, an
associative thesaurus models a relatively closed lexico-semantic and
grammatical space serving the linguistic life of society.
From the point of view of the vocabulary volume, almost all existing
thesauri, due to their lexicographic nature, refer to small dictionaries,
although the number of lexical units included in that or another reference
book varies.
With regard to the generalization / specificity of the vocabulary, thesauri
are divided into general and special. General thesauri reflect the
vocabulary of the common-literary language. Special thesauri mainly
reflect the vocabulary of language styles:
1. Thesauri of the literary language can be represented by dictionaries of
the language of the writer or a separate work, a dictionary of euphemisms,
etc.;
2. The conversational style can be represented by a slang dictionary;
3. The territorial linguistic features are revealed in the dialectal
ideographiс dictionary;
4. The language of science is reflected in scientific and technical
thesauri (of terms), etc.
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Fourth, from the point of view of developing the meaning of lexemes,
existing thesauri split into three main categories:
1. Cumulative – representing groupings of lexical units without
defining their meanings;
2. Definitive – containing a monolingual interpretation of each lexical
unit of the grouping (terminology by K. Marello);
3. Translated – presenting the meaning of a lexical unit through another
language.
It should be admitted that cumulative thesauri still maintain a dominant
position. This primarily concerns ideographic thesauri, because, proceeding
from the idea that this type of dictionary is compiled for native speakers and
intended, if possible, to cover the entire lexical array of the language, the
definition of each lexical unit would make it unnecessarily bulky and
inconvenient for the user. However, dictionaries of the new generation
increasingly contain definitions and replenish the group of definitive
thesauri (mainly analogous).
With regard to grammatical and stylistic qualifications, as well as
demonstration of the functioning of lexemes, existing thesauri can be
divided into complete and differentiated. Complete thesauri contain
comprehensive additional semantic and functional characteristics and rich
illustrative material; accordingly, in differentiated thesauri, the system of
labels and illustrative examples are more scarce.
According to the number of languages represented, thesauri are
divided into mono- and bilingual.
From the point of view of the type of semiotic means used for the
semantization of lexemes, we can talk about the traditional print thesauri,
illustrative (picture) dictionaries and dictionaries with mixed semiotic
means.
The combined dictionary is a new type in the world of lexicography.
The main its difference is the use of several ways of organizing vocabulary.
The alphabetical order of words in a vocabulary is usually combined with a
thesaurus index, in which all lexical units presented in the dictionary are
combined into groups according to their area of use or the concept that they
express. In this way, it is possible to single out an explanatory-ideographic
(combined) dictionary, an explanatory-analogous (combined) dictionary and
(potentially) an explanatory-associative (combined) dictionary.
The number of electronic combined dictionaries is growing,
simultaneously combining explanatory, analogous dictionaries and,
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indirectly, a collocability dictionary. Special mono- and bilingual
dictionaries are gaining popularity, containing both linguistic and
encyclopedic information. The dictionaries of this kind, in general,
systematize vocabulary according to the common graphic form, i.e.
alphabetically, but also provided with a detailed thematic appendix.
Moreover, due to the hyperlink system, the user can easily access articles of
denotatively related lexemes, hyponyms, hyperonyms, etc. In addition, due
to the improved technical capabilities of dictionaries there are entries with
audio representation. Such dictionaries-thesauri can be conventionally
designated as linguistic-encyclopedic combined dictionaries.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the alternative to alphabetical arrangement of words in the
dictionary?
2. What is the onomasiological representation of vocabulary?
3. What is an ideographic group?
4. What is the difference between the lexico-semantic group and the
thematic group?
5. What are three main classes the thesauri are subdivided into by the
type of semantic links between units?
6. What is analogical thesaurus?
7. What is associative thesaurus?
9. What is systematic dictionary?
10. What is an associative dictionary of one representation?
11. What is an associative dictionary proper?
12. What is general thesaurus?
13. What is special thesaurus?
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PART VIII
CONCEPTUAL BASICS AND
ETHNOCULTURAL SPECIFICITY
16. CONCEPTUAL BASIS
OF THE LINGUISTIC UNITS’ SEMANTICS
1. The Concept of Worldview
2. Linguistic Worldview Characteristics
3. Components of The Linguistic Worldview
3.1. Lexical Worldview
3.2. Phraseological Worldview
3.3. Proverbial Worldview
4. Concept. Basic Approaches to Define the “Concept”
4.1. Concept Research Methods
4.2. Problems in Concept Modeling
KEY TERMS
Linguistic worldview, linguistic relativity, cognitive linguistics, national
specifics, universal laws of cognition, culture, basic concepts, nationalspecific abstract concepts, metaphor, lexical worldview, phraseological
worldview, proverbial worldview, concept, conceptual metaphors,
cogniteme.
1. THE CONCEPT OF WORLDVIEW
The concept of worldview as a semantic model of the world is used in
many sciences. There is a physical view of the world that explains the
structure of the world based on the laws of physics. Biological worldview,
representing the world based on biological data. The scientific view of the
world, which is a set of scientific knowledge about the world, developed by
all sciences. There is a religious worldview that explains the existing world
from the standpoint of religion. You can talk about the poetic view of the
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world, presented in the work of some particular poet. Finally, there is a
linguistic worldview.
The linguistic worldview is a pattern of perception of reality fixed in
the language and specific for a given community. This is a reflection in the
language of ideas about the world, carried out by the human mentality of a
given language community.
The concept of a linguistic worldview is associated with the SapirWhorf theory of linguistic relativity. The essence of this theory is that
language determines the people's vision of the world. People perceive the
world around them through the prism of their native language. Later, this
theory began to be considered as the theory of complementarity in language,
emphasizing that not only language determines the perception of the world.
To determine the significance of linguistic semantics in comprehending
the world, linguists conduct special experimental research. The role of the
linguistic worldview in cognition has yet to be established. As for the
description of the linguistic picture of the world based on the study of the
linguistic units’ semantics, the possibility of such a study in modern
linguistics is unquestionable.
Linguistic worldview reflects not the world itself, but our understanding
of it. Therefore, it is also defined as an interpretation of reality enclosed in
language. Words do not reflect objects and phenomena of the world like
photographs. They emphasize one side of the object and obscure the other,
so the term “interpretation” is appropriate in this context. For example, in
the English word for желтофиоль – wallflower – two features come to the
fore: growth near walls and the presence of flowers. Signs such as yellow,
orange or red color, pleasant smell recede into the background. In the
Russian name of this plant, one of the possible colors is indicated – yellow.
And in the name of the bluebell, on the contrary, the sign of the color and
shape of the flower is emphasized, and the sign of place of growth is in the
background. In the Russian word only the form is in the foreground the
colour is not mentioned.
The linguistic interpretation of reality is manifested not only in the
choice of the internal form. It is reflected in the so-called linguistic division
of the world – in which parts or sides of the object are named (for example,
“toe” and “finger” in English and “finger” for the same objects in Russian).
In the nature of metaphorical transfers: for example, the figurative meaning
of the English word rat – “traitor, informer, spy”; French “un rat” –
“stingy man, curmudgeon”, German “ratte” – “enthusiastically working
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man”; Russian “крыса” – “an insignificant person (soldier, civil servant),
humiliated by service”. Furthermore, it is reflected in the number of
synonyms expressing this or that concept, in the structure of semantic fields
and many other factors.
The linguistic worldview is really a picture painted by the linguistic
community, the manner of painting can be different, but this is always an
interpretation, not an absolute copying. The study of this “manner of
writing” is a very interesting task and can tell a lot about both the language
itself and the native speaker.
Description of the linguistic worldview is called its reconstruction. It
does not exist directly as an objective reality so it must be reconstructed
before being investigated. Whereas, the resulting construction cannot be
regarded as a kind of absolute. It is necessary to account the inevitable
subjectivity of analysis, which is superimposed on linguistic data.
Reconstruction of the linguistic worldview involves relying solely on
the facts of the language. According to A. Wierzbicka, the task of a linguist
is to describe the system of conceptualization embodied in the language, but
not to explain why that system is of that kind and not another. Probably, the
reconstruction of the world model based on the analysis of exclusively
linguistic data can be considered the first and main stage in the
reconstruction of the linguistic worldview, the second stage involves a
possible interpretation based on socio-historical and cultural factors. The
specific living conditions of a linguistic community influence its view of the
world, reflected in the language. But strict adherence to the principle of
priority of linguistic data over the socio-historical background is decisive in
the reconstruction of the linguistic worldview.
What views of the world we obtain by examining linguistic factors? For
example, the Russian phraseological unit на краю земли has an internal
form clearly indicating that the Earth is perceived as having an end. Thus, it
reflects very old ideas about the structure of the world. In English there is a
phraseological unit with a similar image – go to the ends of the earth,
meaning “to do everything possible to achieve some goal”. It displays
similar ideas about the world.
E. Sapir noted that over time, linguistic units increasingly begin to
reflect the culture of the past than modern culture. Since the language
evolves slowly, its semantics reflects a largely relict view of the world.
Therefore, the linguistic worldview is sometimes called naive. However,
naive does not mean primitive, because the “naivety” of the linguistic
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worldview contains the experience of dozens generations
(Yu. D. Apresyan). Thus, “naivety” is associated with the reflection of
everyday perception of world, opposed to its scientific understanding and
explanation.
Knowing that the Earth is round did not make the expression “at the end
of the earth” disappear. We say: “the sun rises”, “the sun sets”, the colour is
“black”, but physics found out that this is not a colour, but the absence of it.
The linguistic worldview is generally stable, and its purpose is to
preserve and reproduce the simplified, everyday structuring of the
surrounding world. The linguistic worldview is poorer than the conceptual
one, so that the language system reflects only an insignificant part of the
ideas about the world of a given language community.
The linguistic worldview research is one of the areas of the cognitive
linguistics, where language is viewed as a mechanism for embedding and
storing of knowledge, and the cognitive processes are investigated on the
basis of linguistic data.
2. LINGUISTIC WORLDVIEW CHARACTERISTICS
Cognitive linguistics comprises a direction that explores the general
patterns of structuring knowledge with the help of language in the human
consсiousness and using this knowledge in the process of communication.
The national identity of these processes is not or hardly taken into account.
There is an abstraction from the real differences between people –
national, social, gender. At the same time, these differences are ignored
only up to a certain point, and then can be taken into account in the
constructed model.
The fundamental factor in the study and reconstruction of the linguistic
worldview is the consideration of the national specifics of the perception of
the world and the consolidation of knowledge about it in the language.
The intermediate world created by a language always has its character
(L. Weisgerber). The linguistic worldview reflects both nationally-specific
features inherent to one linguistic community, and universal laws of
cognition, which are characteristic of all peoples.
The linguistic picture of the world is a special structure of knowledge: it
manifests, for example, the perception of one thing through another (the
meaning of a linguistic unit through its internal form), priority attention to a
particular area of knowledge (extended synonymous series, broad thematic
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groups), which is due not only to common mankind, but also to the national
characteristics of knowledge and its representation in language.
The linguistic worldview is a cognitive structure at its core, that is, the
structure of knowledge represented in the semantics of linguistic units. It
also reflects the peculiarities of the culture of the people, which do not
directly depend on the processes of cognition. You cannot automatically
identify the cultural and the cognitive. What is culture? It is estimated that
there are several hundred definitions of culture. In the most general terms,
culture can be defined as a set of results and processes of human social
activity. Culture has material and spiritual forms. Under this approach,
culture is opposed to nature as a set of conditions of existence that do not
depend on man.
Language is a part of culture, it is a tool for expression and transmission
of culture from generation to generation. Scientists distinguish a cumulative
property of language – the property of accumulating culture. In this regard,
we speak very figuratively about the “cultural memory” of words. What, for
example, do the English words labour and work remember? Etymological
analysis shows that lаbоur goes back to the Latin lаbоr, meaning
“misfortune, suffering”, which meant “unbearable burden”. The word
work from the Gothic: waurkjan “to feel pain”. Consequently, work was
regarded in ancient times as an unpleasant, heavy burden that caused
suffering.
Another example is the phraseological unit to burn one's boats (to
commit oneself to an action from which there is no turning back). The
internal form of this phraseological unit takes us to a time when the invaders
were burning ships behind them, cutting off the path to retreat, so that the
desire for victory was maximized, since the only alternative to victory could
be death. Compare to the phraseological unit in Russian «сжечь за собой
корабли».
An appeal to etymology can tell a lot about the perception of the world
by the people in antiquity and about its culture. The desire to recreate the
linguistic worldview led to the new historical and etymological searches
both in vocabulary and in phraseology.
Despite the close connection between language and culture, it is quite
autonomous and can be considered separately from it. The connection
between language and culture is especially clearly revealed when comparing
lexical and phraseological units of different languages. We realize the
specifics of our native culture only when we compare it with other cultures
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