Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Lexicology. Practical Course. Лексикология. Практический курс. Учебное пособие
.pdf
– periods of time: summer, winter, time, week;
– natural phenomena: storm, rain, flood, ice, ground, sea, earth;
– artifacts and materials: bridge, house, shop, room, coal, iron, lead,
cloth;
– different kinds of garment: hat, shirt, shoe;
– abstract notions: care, evil, hope, life, need;
– animals, birds and plants: sheep, horse, fox, crow, oak, grass;
– various notional verbs: bake, burn, drive, buy, hear, keep, learn,
make, rise;
– adjectives of colour, size, etc.: broad, dead, deaf, deep, grey, blue;
– adverbs: down, out, before and others.
2.3. ENGLISH WORDS PROPER
English words proper do not have cognates in other languages. These
words are few and stand quite alone in the vocabulary system of IndoEuropean languages: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always.
Native words are characterized by:
1) a wide range of lexical and syntactic valency and high frequency
value, for example, the verb watch can be used in different sentence
patterns, with or without object and adverbial modifiers and can be
combined with different classes of words: Do you mind if I watch? Helen
watched him with interest. She’s a student and has to watch her budget
closely. American companies are watching Japanese developments closely.
I feel like I’m being watched;
2) a developed polysemy, for instance, the noun watch has the following
meanings: ‘a small clock to be worn, esp. on the wrist, or carried’; ‘the act
of watching’; ‘a person or people ordered to watch a place or a person’; ‘a
fixed period of duty on a ship, usually lasting four hours’; ‘a film or
programme considered in terms of its appeal to the public’, etc.;
3) a great word-building power, for example, watcher, watchful,
watchword, watchable, watchfire, watch-out, watchdog, etc.;
4) the capacity of forming phraseological units, for instance, watch
enters the structure and forms the semantics of the following phraseological
units: to be on the watch, to keep watch, to watch one’s back, to watch one’s
step, etc.
The native element comprises not only the ancient Anglo-Saxon core
but also words which appeared later as a result of word-formation, split of
polysemy and other processes operative in English.
111
3. BORROWED WORDS
The English language happened to come in close contact with several
other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian).
Due to the great influence of the Roman civilisation Latin was for a long
time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse
was the language of the conquerors who were on the same level of social
and cultural development and who merged rather easily with the local
population in the 9th, 10th and the first half of the 11th century. French (to be
more exact its Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors
who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system −
developed feudalism, it was the language of upper classes, of official
documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the
end of the 14th century.
In the study of the borrowed element in English the main emphasis is as
a rule placed on the Middle English period. The greatest number has come
from French. They refer to various fields of social, political, scientific and
cultural life. A large portion of borrowings (41%) is scientific and technical
terms.
The number and character of borrowed words tell us of the relations
between the peoples, the level of their culture, etc. Some borrowings,
however, cannot be explained by the direct influence of certain historical
conditions, they do not come along with any new objects or ideas. Such
were for instance the words air, place, brave, gay borrowed from French.
Under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, which were closely
related to Old English, some classes of words were borrowed that could not
have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages (the
pronouns they, their, them, for instance); a number of Scandinavian
borrowings were felt as derived from native words (they were of the same
root and the connection between them was easily seen), for example, drop
(AS.) – drip (Scand.), true (AS.) – tryst (Scand.). Here are some examples
of early Scandinavian borrowings: call (v), take (v), cast (v), die (v), law
(n), husband (n), window (n), ill (adj), loose (adj), low (adj), weak (adj).
Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as Scandinavian
borrowings by the initial sk- combination: sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt, etc.
The Scandinavian influence even accelerated to a certain degree the
development of the grammatical structure of English. The etymological
structure of the English word-stock you can see in Table 13.
112
The etymological structure of the English vocabulary
Table 13
The native element The borrowed element
1. Indo-European element
2. Germanic element
3. English Proper element (no
earlier than 5
th
c A.D.)
1. Celtic (5-6
2. Latin:
st
1
group: 1st c. B.C.
nd
2
group: 7th c. A.D.
rd
3
group: Renaissance period
3. Scandinavian (8
4. French
Norman borrowing: (11
th
c. A.D.)
th
-11th c. A.D.)
th
-13th c. A.D.)
Parisian borrowings (Renaissance)
5. Greek (Renaissance)
6. Italian (Renaissance and later)
7. Spanish (Renaissance and later)
8. German
9. Indian
10. Russian and some other groups
By the native element are meant the words which were not borrowed
from other languages but represent the original stock of this particular
language.
3.1. WAYS OF BORROWINGS
Borrowings enter the language in two ways:
1) through oral speech (by immediate contact between the peoples).
They took place in the early periods of history. They are usually short, for
instance, L. inch, mill, street and undergo considerable changes in the act of
adoption.
2) through written speech (by indirect contact through books, etc.).
They gained importance in recent times. These words (for example, Fr.
communiqué, belles-lettres, naïveté) preserve their spelling and some
peculiarities of their sound-form, their assimilation is long and laborious
process.
113
3.2. TYPES OF BORROWED WORDS
Borrowings can be singled out according to their type:
1) Translation borrowings (калька) are words and expressions formed
from the material already existing in the English language but according to
patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-formorpheme translation, for example, mother tongue < L. lingua maternal; it
goes without saying < Fr. Cela va sans dire; wall newspaper < Russ.
Стенгазета).
2) Semantic borrowing is understood as the development in an English
word of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another
language, for instance, the English word pioneer means ‘explorer’ and ‘one
who is among the first in new fields of activity’. Under influence of the
Russian word ‘пионер’ it has come to mean ‘a member of the Young
Pioneers’ Organization’.
4. INTERNATIONAL WORDS
International words – words which are borrowed by several languages.
They convey concepts, which are significant in the field of communication.
Many of them are Latin and Greek origin.
2. Names of sciences: philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry,
biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology.
3. Terms of art: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist,
primadonna.
4. Political terms: politics, policy, democracy, revolution, communism,
progress.
5. The English language contributed a number of international words to
world languages: football, volleyball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby,
tennis, golf, etc.
6. Fruits and foodstuff imported from exotic countries: coffee, cocoa,
chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, grapefruit.
International words are often confused with other words which have the
same origin but have diverged in meaning in different languages, for
instance, extravagance: нелепость, сумасбродство, вздор, блажь,
причуды; расточительность, мотовство; accurate – верный,
правильный, точный.
114
5. ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS AND TRIPLETS
Etymological doublets are the words originated from the same
etymological source, but different in phonemic shape and in meaning. The
words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a
native word, and skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape
is different, but there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common
origin. There meanings are also different but easily associated: they both
denote articles of clothing.
Others are represented by two borrowings from different languages
which are historically descended from the same root: senior (L) – sir (Fr);
canal (L) – channel (Fr); captain (L) – chieftain (Fr).
Etymological triplets – group of words of common root: hospital (L) –
hostel (Norm.Fr) – hotel (Par.Fr); to capture (L) – to catch (Norm. Fr) – to
chase (Par. Fr).
6. ASSIMILATION OF BORROWINGS
Assimilation of borrowings denotes a partial or total confrontation to
the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the English
language and its semantic system. There are three degrees of assimilation.
1) Completely assimilated borrowed words follow all morphological,
phonetical and orthographic standards. They take part in word-formation.
Their morphological structure and motivation is transparent. They are found
in all layers of older borrowings: cheese (L.), husband (Sc.), animal (L.).
2) Partially assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into:
a) borrowings not completely assimilated graphically; these are words
from French, in which the final consonant is not read: ballet, buffet; with a
diacritic mark: café, cliché; diagraphs ch, qu, ou, etc.: bouquet, banquet.
b) borrowings not completely assimilated phonetically, for instance,
from French with the stress on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, police or
bourgeois, prestige, regime.
c) borrowings not completely assimilated grammatically, for example,
nouns from Latin and Greek keep their original plural forms: phenomenon –
phenomena; criterion – criteria.
d) borrowings not completely assimilated semantically because they
denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come,
for instance, sari, sombrero, rickshaw, sherbet, etc.
115
3) Unassimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are words from other
languages used by English people, for example, ciao – ‘good-bye’ or tête-à-
tête.
Substitution of sounds, formation of new grammatical categories and
paradigms, morphological simplification and narrowing of meaning take
place in the very act of borrowing. Some words however retain foreign
sounds and inflexions for a long time. Shift of stress is a long and gradual
process; the same is true of the development of new meanings in a borrowed
word, while the formation of derivatives may occur soon after the adoption
of the word.
The degree of assimilation depends on the time of borrowing, the extent
to which the word is used in the language and the way of borrowing.
QUESTIONS
1. What is Etymology?
2. What word is called native?
3. What does the term borrowing mean?
4. What is the diachronic division of native words?
5. What semantic groups of native words belong to the Indo-European
origin?
6. What semantic groups of native words belong to the words of the
Common Germanic origin?
7. What are the main features of the English words proper?
8. What languages did the English language borrow words from? What
is the etymological structure of English vocabulary?
9. What is historical development of borrowed words in the English
language?
10. What are the ways of borrowings?
11. What types of borrowed words do you know?
12. What is meant by translation borrowings?
13. What does the term semantic borrowing denote?
14. What borrowings are called international words?
15. What does the term etymological doublets imply?
16. What is meant by etymological triplets?
17. What native elements does the English vocabulary include?
18. What borrowed elements does the English vocabulary involve?
19. What does the assimilation of borrowings denote?
116
20. What are the main degrees of assimilation?
21. What borrowings are regarded as completely assimilated?
22. How can partially assimilated borrowed words be singled out?
23. What are borrowings ‘not completely assimilated phonetically’?
24. How can you characterize the borrowings which are not completely
assimilated graphically?
25. What are borrowings not completely assimilated grammatically
like?
26. How can you describe borrowings which are not completely
assimilated semantically?
27. How can we call an unassimilated borrowing? What is its main
feature?
117
PART VI
VARIANTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
12. MAIN VARIANTS
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1. Standard English and Variants of English.
2. Variants of English in the United Kingdom.
2.1. Scottish English.
2.2. Irish English.
3. Variants of English outside the British Isles.
3.1. American English.
3.2. Canadian English.
3.3. Australian English.
3.4. South African English.
3.5. New Zealand English.
3.6. Indian English.
4. Some Peculiarities of British English and American English.
KEY TERMS
Standard English, variant of English, British English, Scottish English,
Irish English, American English, historical Americanisms, proper
Americanisms, specifically American borrowings, American shortenings,
Canadian English, Canadianisms, Australian English, New Zealand English,
South African English, Indian English.
1. STANDARD ENGLISH AND VARIANTS
OF ENGLISH
Every language allows different kinds of variations: geographical
or territorial, perhaps the most obvious, stylistic, the difference between
the written and the spoken form of the standard national language and
others. For historical and economic reasons, the English language has
spread over vast territories. It is the national language of England proper,
118
the USA, Australia, New Zealand and some provinces of Canada. It is the
official language in Wales, Scotland, in Gibraltar and on the island of
Malta.
In modern linguistics the distinction is made between Standard English
and territorial variants of the English language.
Standard English may be defined as that form of English which is
current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable
wherever English is spoken or understood. It has a prescribed norm, or
standard use, that receives the highest respect within society. This respect is
based on grammatical usage and on pronunciation. Standard English is the
variety most widely accepted and understood either within an Englishspeaking country or throughout the entire English-speaking world.
Variants of English are regional variants possessing a literary norm.
There are distinguished variants existing on the territory of the United
Kingdom (British English, Scottish English and Irish English), and variants
existing outside the British Isles (American English, Canadian English, New
Zealand English, South African English and Indian English).
British English is often referred to the written Standard English and the
pronunciation known as Received Pronunciation (RP).
2. VARIANTS OF ENGLISH
IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Besides British English, there are two other variants of the English
language existing on the territory of the United Kingdom: Scottish English
and Irish English, which have a special linguistic status.
2.1. SCOTTISH ENGLISH
Scottish English is considered the variant of the English language
spoken in Scotland. Scottish English has a long tradition as a separate
written and spoken variety. Pronunciation, grammar and lexis differ from
other varieties of English existing on the territory of the British Isles. It can
be explained by its historical development.
The identity of Scottish English reflects an institutionalized social
structure, as it is most noticeable in the realm of law, local government,
religion, and education, and raises problems of intelligibility that have no
parallel elsewhere in Britain.
119
Among lexical peculiarities of Scottish English, the following linguistic
facts are of importance:
1) some semantic fields are structured differently in Scottish English and
in British English. For example, the term minor in British English is used to
denote a person below the age of 18 years, while Scottish law distinguishes
between pupils (to age 12 for girls and 14 for boys) and minors (older
children up to 18);
2) some words used in Scottish English have equivalents in British
English, for example, (ScE) extortion – (BrE) blackmail;
3) a great deal of the distinctiveness of Scottish English derived from the
influence of other languages, especially Gaelic, Norwegian, and French. For
instance, Gaelic borrowings include: cairn – ‘a pile of stones that marks the
top of a mountain or some other special place’, sporran – ‘a small furry bag
that hangs in front of a man’s kilt as part of traditional Scottish dress’;
4) there are many words which have the same form, but different
meanings in Scottish English and British English. For example, the word
gate in Scottish English means ‘road’;
5) some Scottish words and expressions are used and understood across
virtually the whole country, for instance, dinnae (don’t), wee (small), kirk
(church), lassie (girl).
2.2. IRISH ENGLISH
Irish English is considered the variant of the English language used in
Ireland. Irish English subsumes all the Englishes of the island, and other
terms stand for subvarieties. The two main politico-linguistic divisions are
Southern and Northern, within and across which further varieties are AngloIrish, Hiberno-English, Ulster, Scots, and the usage of the two capitals,
Dublin and Belfast.
The Irish English vocabulary is characterized by the following
distinctive features:
1) the presence of words with the same form as in British English but
different meanings in Irish English, for example, backward – ‘shy’; to doubt –
‘to believe strongly’; bold – ‘naughty’;
2) the use of most regionally marked words by older, often rural people,
for instance, biddable – ‘obedient’; feasant – ‘affable’;
3) the presence of nouns taken from Irish which often relate either to
food or the supernatural, for example, banshee – ‘fairy woman’ from bean
sidhe;
120
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]