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of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Khrushchev was elected a deputy
of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of 1–6-th convocation.
The activities of Khrushchev at the highest positions in the party and
state are contradictory. At the XXth (1956) and XXIIth (1961) congresses
of the CPSU Nikita Khrushchev sharply criticized the cult
of the personality and the activities of Stalin. He was one of the main
initiators of rehabilitation of victims of repression and a "thaw"
in domestic and foreign policy. He attempted to modernize the party-state
system, limit the privileges of the party and state apparatus, improve
the material situation and the living conditions of the population.
In agriculture there was an increase of purchasing prices, a reduction
of the taxes, the issuance of passports to collective farmers, the creation
of economic councils (an attempt to replace the departmental principle
of economic management with a territorial one), the cultivation of virgin
land, the introduction of corn into crops. Attempts were made to introduce
certain elements of a market economy into the planned socialist economy.
Khrushchev began the first programs of mass housing construction
(“Khrushchevki”) and the development of outer space by man.
At the same time, the researchers note the construction
of the nomenclature regime in the country, the suppression of dissent,
the arbitrariness towards the intelligentsia, the aggravation of military
confrontation with the West (the Berlin crisis of 1961, the Caribbean
crisis of 1962, etc.), and political projections (calls for “catch up and
outstrip America!”, promises to build communism by 1980).
On October 14, 1964 October plenum of the CPSU Central
Committee, organized in the absence of Khrushchev, who was
on vacation, freed him from party and governmental positions “for health
reasons”. He was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev, who became the first
secretary of the Communist Party, and Alexey Kosygin, who became
a chairman of the Council of Ministers.
On September 11, 1971 Nikita Khrushchev died. He was buried
in Moscow at the Novodevichy Cemetery. Khrushchev was a winner
of the Lenin Prize in 1959 “For the strengthening of peace between
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nations”, hero of the Soviet Union (1964), hero of the Socialist Labor
(1954, 1957, 1961). Among the awards Khrushchev had seven Orders
of Lenin, the Order of Suvorov 1st and 2nd degree, the Order of Kutuzov
1st degree, the Order of the Patriotic War 1st degree, the Order of the Red
Banner of Labor, medals, awards of foreign countries.
Nikita Khrushchev was married twice (according to other sources –
three times). The first wife of Nikita Khrushchev was Efrosinya Pisareva
(died in 1919).
In this marriage, the daughter Julia was born (1916–1981), she
became a teacher, and son Leonid (1917–1943) – a military pilot.
The second wife of Khrushchev was Nina Kukharchuk (1900–1984).
Their daughter Rada (born in 1929) became a journalist, son Sergey (born
1935) – an engineer, daughter Elena (1937–1973) – a researcher.
In August 1975 at the grave of Nikita Khrushchev at the Novodevichy
Cemetery, a monument was erected by the sculptor Ernst Neizvestny.
Monuments to Khrushchev were installed in the Krasnodar Territory and
the city of Vladimir. In September 2009 a marble bust was installed in his
native village Kalinovka, Khomutovsky district. On the building
of the Donetsk National Polytechnic University, in which Khrushchev
studied, a memorial board was hanged.
Despite of bad features Khrushchev was accounted as a man
of stature. Throughout the 1990s increased access to party and state
archives in Russia produced a steady stream of publications relating
to Khrushchev’s career.
Task 1. Answer the questions:
1. Following the “Secret Speech”, students rioted and attacked
Soviet troops with petrol bombs and grenades. Enormous illegal
demonstrations began to take place in Budapest. These quickly became
violent. When the police lost control, similar protests started elsewhere.
A. What reforms did Nagy propose?
B. What did Khrushchev think of Nagy's reforms?
C. What happened in Hungary after Khrushchev's speech?
D. What happened to Imre Nagy?
72
2. Khrushchev's “peaceful co-existence” led to more contact with
the west, more dissatisfaction, more political opposition, and more
demands for reform.
A. Why did the riots in response to the “Secret Speech” happen?
B. How did Khrushchev decide to crush the Hungarian uprising?
C. Who was Janos Kadar?
D. How many Hungarians were killed and wounded by the Soviets
during the uprising?
3. Almost 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West. This tells us that
Khrushchev's violence did not serve to make the Hungarians submit.
A. How did Khrushchev initially combat Hungarian violence?
B. How many Hungarians fled to the West?
C. What was Khrushchev's announcement following Nagy's hanging?
D. What does this tell us? How did Nagy's ideas split Hungarian
government?
4. He sent 200,000 Soviet troops into Hungary to crush the new
government in November 1956. This attack became successful after two
weeks of bitter fighting.
A. How many Hungarians were killed and wounded by the Soviets
during the uprising?
B. Who was Janos Kadar?
C. Why did the riots in response to the “Secret Speech” happen?
D. How did Khrushchev decide to crush the Hungarian uprising?
5. About 2500 people were killed by Soviet troops, and about 20000
were wounded.
A. Why did the riots in response to the “Secret Speech” happen?
B. How did Khrushchev decide to crush the Hungarian uprising?
C. Who was Janos Kadar?
D. How many Hungarians were killed and wounded by the Soviets
during the uprising?
6. Spain, the Netherlands and Sweden boycotted the 1956 Olympics
in protest at the Soviet invasion. Thousands of people, in many different
European countries, resigned their membership of the Communist party.
73
A. What support did America offer to the Hungarian uprising?
B. What was the problem with Berlin's division?
C. Aside from the UN and America, who else made any move against
the Communists as a result of the Hungarian uprising?
D. Why was it that America offered encouragement but not military
involvement to the Hungarians?
7. In May 1960, the Russians shot down a U2 plane and captured its
pilot, Gary Powers. Khrushchev exposed the American spying
programme. Eisenhower claimed that the pilot was merely studying
the weather, but Khrushchev produced the pilot himself, who confessed.
A. How did Eisenhower react to Khrushchev's declaration about
Berlin?
B. How had America spied on the USSR since 1956?
C. What did the USSR think of the U2 spies?
D. How did Khrushchev expose U2?
8. Khrushchev declared that the whole of the city of Berlin officially
belonged to belonged to East Germany and demanded that the USA
withdrew their troops.
A. When was the first Geneva meeting?
B. What happened there?
C. What happened at the 1961 Geneva Conference?
D. How did Khrushchev respond to the refugee crisis? When was
the Camp David meeting?
9. He decided to station Russian nuclear weapons on Cuban soil.
This would deter America from attempting another invasion. It would also
place missiles in striking distance of America.
A. What was Kennedy's plan for dealing with Castro?
B. What plan did Khrushchev make for Cuba?
C. Why was there a revolution in Cuba?
D. What was Kennedy's response to the Berlin Wall being put up?
10. In August 1963, the USA and USSR agreed to ban the testing
of all nuclear weapons in space, in the sea and above ground.
Underground nuclear tests were still permitted.
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A. What was the American reaction to news of the Cuban missiles?
1. What was the name of
Khrushchev's speech and when
was it made?
А. Khrushchev stated that Nagy's
fate was “a lesson to the leaders
of all socialist countries”.
2. How did Nagy's ideas split
Hungarian government?
B. The Secret speech was made
in 1956, promising 'peaceful coexistence' around the Soviet sphere
of influence, and an end
to Stalinism.
3. What did Khrushchev think
of Nagy's reforms?
C. Nagy believed that the UN and
the USA would help Hungary.
Others did not want to break away
from the USSR.
4. What was Khrushchev's
announcement following Nagy's
hanging?
D. Khrushchev believed that
the reforms were unacceptable and
that if Hungary was allowed
to leave the Warsaw Pact, other
Eastern European countries would
soon follow. A series of reports
indicating that discontent with
Communism was high led
Khrushchev to believe that greater
freedom would mean the end
of Soviet dominance.
5. How did Khrushchev initially
combat Hungarian violence?
E. Khrushchev agreed to the
appointment of a more liberal
leader, Imre Nagy.
B. What happened on 25 September 1962?
C. What was the hotline?
D. What was the “limited test ban treaty”?
Task 2. Match terms and definitions:
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6. What did Khrushchev agree with
the Yugoslavian ambassador about
Nagy?
F. The Yugoslavian Ambassador
agreed with Khrushchev that Nagy
was free to leave Hungary.
7. What did the UN do about
the Hungarian uprising?
G. The UN did nothing more than
condemn the Soviet invasion.
8. What did the USSR think
of the U2 spies?
H. Eisenhower did not want to lose
West Berlin, nor did he want
to start another war. Consequently,
it was agreed to hold
an international meeting in order
to discuss Berlin's future.
9. How did Eisenhower react
to Khrushchev's declaration about
Berlin?
I. Khrushchev was enraged by
the American spying band
demanded that Eisenhower
punished the leaders of the U2
programme. Eisenhower refused,
and Khrushchev walked out
of the conference on the first day.
10. How had America spied
on the USSR since 1956?
J. The American air force had sent
U2 spy planes into Russian air
space to gather information about
the Soviet military.
Task 3. Check what statements are true and what are false (T/F):
1. As soon as Nagy left the Yugoslavian Embassy, he was arrested
by Soviet troops. Nagy was accused of treason and, in a trial overseen
by Khrushchev, was found guilty. He was hanged in June 1958. → What
happened in Hungary after Khrushchev's speech?
2. Janos Kadar was a member of Hungarian government who set
up a rival, pro-USSR, government in Eastern Europe. → Who was
Janos Kadar?
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3. Nagy proposed that: Hungary should leave the Warsaw pact and
become neutral; Communist government in Hungary should end; Hungary
should become a Western-style democracy with free elections; and
Hungary should ask the UN for protection from Russia. → What reforms
did Nagy propose?
4. Nagy sought protection in the Yugoslavian embassy. → How did
Nagy's ideas split Hungarian government?
5. The USSR created the Warsaw Pact in 1955. → When was
the Warsaw Pact established?
6. Stalin died in 1953, to be replaced by Nikita Khrushchev. → How
was Stalin's death a turning point in the Cold War?
7. The Korean War demonstrated that America was devoted
to the global restriction of Communism. → What did the Korean War
demonstrate regarding America?
8. Khrushchev challenged America's new president, Kennedy,
to withdraw troops from Berlin within six months or declare war.
Kennedy refused to move American troops from German soil. → What
happened at the 1961 Geneva Conference?
9. Russia; America had been exposed as spying, then lying about it
afterwards. → What happened at the 1961 Geneva Conference?
10. It meant that Khrushchev could attack America without spending
large amounts of money developing inter-continental ballistic
missiles. → Why was there a revolution in Cuba?
77
Lecture 6. STAGNATION AND “PERESTROIKA”
https://sovtime.ru/rulers/brezhnev
Leonid Brezhnev – General Secretary
of the Central Committee of the Communist
Party, Chairman of the Presidium
of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
He was the leader of the Soviet Union for
18 years. He was born on December 19,
1906 in the village of Kamenka,
Dnepropetrovsk region of Ukraine.
He graduated from Kursk Land
Reconstruction and Reclamation College
and Dneprodzerzhinsk Metallurgical
Institute.
PART 1
(December 19, 1906 – November 10, 1982, Moscow)
After graduating from the institute, he worked as an engineer and
director of a technical school and also held a variety of local party posts.
His career was growing under Joseph Stalin’s regime. In 1937
Brezhnev was elected a deputy chairman of the executive committee
of the Dneprodzerzhinsk City Council. Since February 1939 he became
secretary of the Dnepropetrovsk Regional Committee of the Communist
Party of Ukraine for propaganda. Since 1941 he was in the army and took
part in the Great Patriotic War as a political commissar in the Red Army.
By the end of the war he became the head of the political administration
of the 4th Ukrainian Front.
Since 1950 he was on the leading party work. In 1950 he was sent
to Moldavia as a first secretary of the Moldavian Communist Party with
the task of sovietizing the Romanian population of that new territory.
In 1952 he became a member of the Central Committee of the Communist
Party and a candidate member of the Politburo.
Under Brezhnev conservative tendencies prevailed in the country,
negative processes in the economy, social and spiritual spheres of society
78
began to grow. That’s why the “Brezhnev era” was called “stagnation”
in the literature. The periods of easing tensions in the international
situation related to the conclusion of a series of treaties with the United
States, the Federal Republic of Germany and other countries, as well as
the development of measures for security and cooperation in Europe,
were replaced by a sharp aggravation of international contradictions.
The period of Brezhnev in the domestic arena was characterized
by the rise of Stalin's personality. During this period in the USSR
the image of Stalin appeared massively in front of people. The decisive
role of Stalin in the victory over Germany. The Brezhnev’s period was
marked by new transformations for the country.
When Stalin died, Brezhnev lost his posts in the Central Committee
and in the Politburo. He had to accept the position of deputy head
of the political department of the Ministry of Defense with the rank
of lieutenant-general. But in 1954 Nikita Khrushchev, new leader
of the USSR, made Brezhnev a second secretary of the Kazakhstan
Communist Party. Brezhnev was soon promoted to the post of a first
secretary of the Kazakhstan Communist Party, in 1956 he was reelected
to his posts in the Central Committee and in the Politburo. A year later,
after he had worked against the “antiparty group” that attempted
to remove Khrushchev, Brezhnev was made a full member of the Politburo,
and became a chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. In July
1964 he resigned that post to become Khrushchev’s assistant as a second
secretary of the Central Committee. By that time, he was considered as
Khrushchev’s heir – as future leader of the Party. After the retirement
of Nikita Khrushchev in 1964, Leonid Brezhnev was elected the first
secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. At the same
time since 1977 he was a Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme
Soviet of the USSR. Three months later Brezhnev took part
in the coalition that forced Khrushchev from power. Brezhnev became
a first secretary of the Communist Party, then a general secretary. After
a short period of “collective leadership” with Aleksey Kosygin, Brezhnev
emerged as the dominant figure.
79
Under Brezhnev conservative tendencies prevailed in the country,
negative processes in the economy, social and spiritual spheres of society
began to grow. That’s why the “Brezhnev era” was called “stagnation”
in the literature. The periods of easing tensions in the international
situation related to the conclusion of a series of treaties with the United
States, the Federal Republic of Germany and other countries, as well as
the development of measures for security and cooperation in Europe,
were replaced by a sharp aggravation of international contradictions.
The period of Brezhnev in the domestic arena was characterized by
the rise of Stalin's personality. During this period in the USSR the image
of Stalin appeared massively in front of people. The decisive role
of Stalin in the victory over Germany. The Brezhnev’s period was marked
by new transformations for the country.
Immediately after Brezhnev came to power, an acute question arose –
economic reform was needed, since Khrushchev's last 5 years had led
to terrible consequences. Therefore, everyone from simple citizens
to the leaders of the Central Committee understood that reforms are needed.
The economic reform of 1965 made a major effort to modernize agriculture
and industry. Kosygin was a leader of reforms but he was removed after
the first positive results, then the fall of the economy of the USSR began.
In March 1965, the leadership of the USSR announced the beginning
of reform in the agrarian sector. The main ideas of this reform were
following:
1. The state increased procurement prices for state farms and
collective farms.
2. For overfulfilment of the plan for growing agricultural products,
the state set a surcharge to the purchase price + 50%.
3. Procurement prices were approved for 10 years, which gave
the agrarians guarantees.
4. Collective farmers were now paid guaranteed wages not workdays,
as it was before.
5 The state sent large sums of money to equip collective and state
farms with a material and technical base.
6. Removal of all restrictions on the personal farming.
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