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in Moscow and other towns were conducting services and offering
prayers for victory over the enemy. Peasants wrote that they wished
to help the Motherland more; they had already donated 18,000 rubles
to the Defense Fund but could do more if they had a pastor.
Contributions came not only from young men, but also from
children, women, and people of all ages. Women enlisted willingly and
served as partisans, fighter pilots, factory workers, and numerous other
vocations. Children worked in factories building munitions, tanks, and
support equipment. Women and children worked alongside soldiers
building defenses for the cities that were to come under attack. It should
be noted that there were some citizens that were excited about the German
invasion and looked upon them not as invaders or oppressors, but as
liberators. Many Ukrainian villagers offered the advancing Germany
army plates of salt and bread, a traditional gift of welcome. But this
group was an extremely small part of the population.
It was the Soviet citizen that rebuilt the Dnieper Dam, moved 84%
of Soviet industry to the east, and replaced plough horses with
themselves to work the land when there were no more horses. It was
the Soviet citizen that donated blood even when they were too weak
to spare any, worked in their homes to knit millions of scarves and
socks for the soldiers of the Red Army, and sold what little valuables
they had to donate the funds to the defense fund. It was the Soviet
citizen that refused to give up the fight even though it meant sleeping
with their families on the ground in burnt out homes, consistently
coping with starvation and freezing, and burying their children.
The reason for the rise from incompetence to Soviet victory lies
in the unparalleled heroism, in the indomitable spirit of the Soviet
people, demonstrated both at the front and at the rear. It lies in their
will to win, increased tenfold by the atrocities committed against
the people and their country.
Task 1. Answer the following questions:
1. When did Great Patriotic War begin?
2. What difference is between World War II and Great Patriotic War?
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3. What countries were allies of the USSR?
4. When and how did the evacuation begin?
5. Who was the General Commander of Red Army?
6. What do you know about G. Zhukov?
7. What periods can be Great Patriotic War divided into?
8. What main military operations took place during Great Patriotic War?
9. What was the end of Great Patriotic War?
10. What are the reasons of the USSR’s victory?
Task 2. Check what statements are true and what are false (T/F):
1. On June 22, 1939 the German army attacked the Soviet Union.
2. The Soviet Union was able to produce more tanks than Germany
in all of 1941.
3. By December 1941 the Germans had driven an incredible
600 miles into the Soviet Union, within 20 miles of Moscow.
4. By January of 1942 the war started to turn in favor of the Red
Army and in less than four years.
5. A second key reason for the ability of the Red Army to begin
to prevail against the German invaders was a vast superiority in the supply
of troops.
Task 3. Topics for an essay:
1. A major battle between German and Soviet troops in World War II.
The Battle was fought in the winter of 1942–1943 and ended with
the surrender of an entire German army. Stalingrad is considered a major
turning point of the war in favor of the Allies.
2. The final wartime meeting of the leaders of the United States,
Britain, and the Soviet Union was held at Potsdam, outside Berlin, in July,
1945. Truman, Churchill, and Stalin Discussed the future of Europe but
their failure to reach a meaningful agreement soon led to the onset
of the Cold War.
3. FDR, Churchill and Stalin met at Yalta in February 1945. Russia
agreed to declare war on Japan after the surrender of Germany and
in return FDR and Churchill promised the USSR concession in Manchuria
and the territories that it had lost in the Russo-Japanese War.
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Lecture 5. N. KHRUSCHEV AND POLICY “THAW” (Ottepel)
http://istoricheskijportret.ru/praviteli/rukovoditelisssr/xruchev/
After Stalin's death, the first
secretary of the Central Committee
of the CPSU was elected Nikita
Khrushchev. The Khrushchev era
at the initial stage is characterized
by a struggle for power. The active
participants in this struggle were
Khrushchev, Beria and Malenkov.
As a result, Khrushchev won in this
struggle, which concentrated all
the threads of the country's
governance in his hands.
PART 1
The era of Khrushchev began with the rehabilitation of a huge
number of prisoners. About 1.5 million people were released from prison,
many were rehabilitated posthumously. In addition, the era of Khrushchev
needed economic changes. Malenkov declared this first in 1953. This
reform was focused on the light industry, since the heavy industry was
well developed by that time. Khrushchev's era did not accept the reforms
proposed by Malenkov. Later, Malenkov was distant from power and had
no opportunity to implement his plans.
Khrushchev's domestic policy in the early years of the country's
governance, was aimed at raising the level of agriculture. He suggested
that this be done by increasing the procurement prices from the state, as
well as through the development of new lands, primarily in Siberia.
In 1954 the program for the development of virgin land began.
The development of virgin lands allowed to increase the area under crops
by 42 million hectares. At the same time, as promised, procurement prices
were raised. This led to a sharp increase in agriculture. For 5 years
the increase in production was 34%.
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By 1959 Khrushchev's domestic policy in the field of agriculture had
changed. This year the state forced the collective farms to buy back
equipment that they previously rented. The deadline was set for 1 year.
Prices were significantly higher than market prices. The collective farms
were forced to do this, since it was impossible to work without machinery.
As a result, such an internal policy of Khrushchev led to the fact that
in one year the state almost completely returned the money invested
in the development of agriculture. Simultaneously, Khrushchev almost
doubled the area of fields for the sowing of corn. In 1962 there was a food
crisis. The virgin lands began to wither, the harvest fell to 65%, the main
fields were sown with corn. As a result, the state was forced to purchase
grain for the first time abroad.
Domestic policy of Khrushchev completely dismissed Malenkov's
plan for the development of the light industry. The country was actively
developing heavy industry and engineering. Annually in the USSR
production in these areas was increased by 10%. But this was achieved
not through the introduction of new technologies, but mainly through
the construction of new plants. In 1957 many large enterprises were
transferred to the management of local authorities. This step, however,
aggravated the economic situation. A single technological process was
broken. In the results, the growth rate of the economy began to decrease
significantly. If in 1955 the industrial growth rate was 85%, then in 1965
it was only 51%. This problem was not solved even by the transition
to the seven-year plan, instead of the five-year plan.
One of the most important problems in the development of industry
in the Khrushchev era was the fact that by the end of 1959 the share
of production of the objects of group “A” (means of production) was
75 percent. On the one hand, this emphasizes the country's focus
on industrial development (in 1953, for example, this figure was 70%),
but on the other hand it was very dangerous. The danger is that
the share of Group B companies practically did not work.
In the postwar era of Stalin, the annual growth rate of industry
exceeded 10%. Khrushchev and his team believed that these figures
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should be kept realistically, only new enterprises should be built. This
was the case everywhere: new factories and plants were opened, although
they publicly said that they would develop the economy thanks
to scientific and technical progress. But this progress has been applied
only in the military sphere.
The reform of the management of the economy in industry,
undertaken by Khrushchev, also affected management. In 1957
the Ministries were abolished and their place was taken by the regional
branch ministries. They are known today as the Sovnarkhozy (Soviets
of the National Economy). As a result, there was a partial decentralization
of the economy with the transfer of authority to the regions. In this
there were positive moments but the disadvantages outweighed.
These problems became apparent for the leadership of the USSR and
the reform of the economy of Khrushchev moved to the next stage
of smoothing the negative consequences. In particular the Sovnarkhozy
moved from the regional to the republican level in fact they returned
to the ministries. After that a plan was announced for 1959–1965 on the
qualitative leap of the economy.
A key indicator of the development of the economy is the growth rate
of industry. And this figure was inexorable for the leadership
of Khrushchev – the pace fell, and quite quickly. The growth rate
of industry declined regularly and in the period 1961–1965 industry and
agriculture literally collapsed. It became obvious that the economic
management reform failed in terms of industry, although in general
the industrial society in the USSR was already formed.
The economic policy of Khrushchev focused on social policy. But
the failures in agriculture led among other things to insurrections. The most
widespread of these was the uprising in Novocherkassk in 1962, for
the suppression of which the army and tanks were used. But in general,
during this period, several important changes were made at once:
1. The collective farmers were given passports. Before 1960 people
in the village had no passports.
2. In 1964 the collective farmers were given a pension.
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3. Collective farmers were guaranteed wages that became fixed.
4. Increase of wages of workers by 19%.
5. Reduction of the working day to 46 hours (in industry).
6. The growth of housing (everyone knows an apartment with
the name "Khrushchevka"). During this period 54 million people received
new apartments.
In the economic policy of Khrushchev had its own positive moments,
but globally for the country this time was a time of great failure.
The industry worked, but it became obvious that the enterprises of group
“B” were not enough categorically. In agriculture they were up-converted
to the point where, for the first time since the Civil War, grain was
purchased abroad. The increase of prices led to numerous uprisings.
Therefore, Khrushchev's activity was rather negative for the USSR than
positive. It was from here that the processes began that resulted
in perestroika.
In foreign policy he promoted his “doctrine of peaceful coexistence”
with the other countries. Khrushchev proclaimed it at the 20th Party
Congress for the first time. In 1959 he said at the 21st Party Congress:
“We offer the capitalist countries peaceful competition” [5]. The same
year Khrushchev visited the USA – cities and farms there. The relations
between the USA and the USSR raised to the high level after meeting
Khrushchev and D. Eisenhower in “Camp David” (Maryland). Khrushchev
as a diplomat remained irascible and blunt. At a Moscow reception he
directed his famous “We will bury you!” comment at the capitalist West.
During a meeting with U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon at the so-called
“kitchen debate” (named for the model of American kitchen in which part
of the meeting took place) in Moscow Khrushchev failed to be impressed
by a display of American innovations, boasting that the Soviet Union
soon would surpass the United States in its technological developments.
At summit with Eisenhower in May 1960 in Paris Khrushchev
announced that a US plane (a U-2 spy aircraft) had been shot down over
the Soviet Union and its pilot was arrested. Later that year, at the United
Nations, he reacted to a comparison between Soviet control of Eastern
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Europe and Western imperialism by banging his shoe on a desk. In 1961
Vienna conference with the next US president John Kennedy didn’t result
in agreement about German question – the Berlin Wall was built soon
after it.
The Soviet Union launched the first world’s space satellite in 1957.
This action was followed by expanded missile buildups. In 1962
Khrushchev made secretly effort to place Soviet medium-range missiles
in Cuba, but these attempts were detected by the USA. The result was
tense confrontation in October. The USA and the USSR clearly stood
on the brink edge of nuclear war. Khrushchev accepted to remove the
missiles in exchange for a promise that the USA would not make further
attempt to overthrow communist government in Cuba. This action became
a subject to criticism by the Chinese communists.
Khrushchev’s attempts to reform communism powerfully and
permanently influenced similar tendencies in the world’s other communist
states, from Vladislav Gomulka’s Polish thaw (1957) to Dubcek’s
“socialism with a human face” in Czechoslovakia (1968) down through
the efforts of Deng Xiaoping and his successors.
Khrushchev's dismissal from the post of the first secretary
of the CPSU Central Committee and from all his posts took place at the
October plenum of the Central Committee of 1964 (October 12–14).
Khrushchev signed a statement of his own free will with the following
wording: “due to old age and deterioration in health.” It was a unique case
when the head of state's displacement passed without a crisis
in the country. But the crisis arose in another – the party held power with
all its might, not letting the young generation rule the country. Hence
the situation when, by the 1980s, the average age of the Politburo had
exceeded 70 years.
The active stage of the conspiracy against Khrushchev began to take
shape at the beginning of 1964. In many respects the impetus for this was
the speech of Nikita Khrushchev, in which he stressed that the current
government is an age-old one and it is necessary to transfer power
to the next generation within several years. After that, for such people, for
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example, like Brezhnev and Kosygin, the question of political existence
really arose.
The second impulse for the plot occurred in September 1964, when
Khrushchev said that in November the next plenum of the Central
Committee will be held, at which the personnel question will be raised,
and castling in the government will be carried out. After that, Khrushchev
went on vacation: first to the Crimea and then to Pitsunda. From there
he was summoned to an emergency plenum, where events unfolded.
On October 12, 1964, it was finally decided that the overthrow
of Khrushchev should take place, and for this he must be summoned from
leave in Pitsunda. At about 09:00 p.m. Brezhnev called Khrushchev
and asked him to fly the next day to the meeting of the party's
Central Committee, where allegedly they had to discuss the transition
to the 8-year plan. Khrushchev agreed and confirmed that he would arrive
in Moscow with Mikoyan.
On October 13, at 03:00 p.m. the Politburo meeting began, where
only Khrushchev and Mikoyan were expected to come. After Nikita
Khrushchev appeared in the hall and took the place of chairman,
the meeting started and the first word was taken by Brezhnev. He was
the first speaker and began to accuse the present party leader
of the following:
1. Creation of the personality cult.
2. Insulting like-minded people and party members.
3. Combining positions.
4. Division of the party into industrial and agricultural components.
5. Errors in the management of the country.
On October 14, Khrushchev said that he would not fight for power
and was ready to leave his post voluntarily. At 11:00 a.m. the meeting
began, at which the main concepts for the forthcoming plenum were
worked out:
1. Khrushchev signs a letter of resignation due to his old age and poor
health.
2. Prohibition for one person holding the post of chairman
of the party secretary and the chairman of the Council of Ministers.
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3. Elections of the new party secretary (Brezhnev), and the chairman
of the Council of Ministers (Kosygin).
At 06:00 p.m. the plenum began, at which these issues were finally
approved. The report, which preceded it, was read by Suslov for two
hours. After that the issue was finally solved. Khrushchev moved from all
posts, went to retirement. He retained his financial maintenance and also
was given a position in the Central Committee of the CPSU but only
nominal without actual power and the right to vote.
Task. Answer the following questions:
1. Why was Khrushchev able to become a leader of the Party?
2. What was changed after 20th Party Congress in the USSR?
3. What does “de-Stalinization” mean?
4. What changes took place in domestic policy?
5. How were foreign affairs changed?
6. What was different in relations with the USA?
7. What social policy made Khrushchev popular?
8. Why this period is called “Thaw”?
9. What were the reasons for the Khrushchev’s retire?
PART 2
Nikita Khrushchev was born in April 17, 1894 in village Kalinovka –
died September 11, 1971, Moscow. He was a first secretary
of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1953–1964) and premier
of the Soviet Union (1958–1964) whose policy of de-Stalinization had
widespread repercussions throughout the communist world. In foreign policy
he pursued a policy of “peaceful coexistence” with the capitalist West.
Nikita Khrushchev was born in the village Kalinovka, Dmitrievsky
district of the Kursk province (now – Khomutovsky district of the Kursk
region). In 1908 the family moved to Yuzovka (now Donetsk). Unlike
Lenin and most other Soviet leaders, who generally had middle-class
backgrounds, Khrushchev was the son of a coal miner. His grandfather
had been a serf who served in the tsarist army.
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Khrushchev received primary education in the village school. Since
1908, he worked as a fitter, boiler cleaner, was in trade unions, participated
in labor strikes. In 1918, Khrushchev joined the Communist Party. He
took an active part in the Civil War on the Southern Front. In the early
1920s he worked in the Donbas mine, and then studied at the working
faculty of the Donetsk Industrial Institute. Later he was engaged
in economic and party work in the Donbass and Kiev.
In 1929, Khrushchev entered the Industrial Academy in Moscow,
where he was elected a secretary of the party committee. Since January
1931, he was on party work in Moscow. Since 1934 he had been
a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union (CPSU Central Committee). In 1935–1938 Khrushchev was
the first secretary of the Moscow and Moscow city committees of the party.
In January 1938 he was appointed a first secretary of the Central
Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine. In the same year he became
a candidate, and in 1939 – a member of the Politburo (Presidium)
of the Central Committee. During the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was
a member of the military councils of the Main Command of the SouthWestern, South-Western, Stalingrad, South-Eastern, Southern, Voronezh,
and First Ukrainian Fronts; conducted work on the organization of partisan
movement in Ukraine. In 1943, Khrushchev was awarded the military rank
“Lieutenant-General”.
In 1944–1947 he was a chairman of the Council of Commissars
(since 1946 – the Council of Ministers) of the Ukrainian SSR.
In December 1947 Khrushchev headed the Communist Party of Ukraine
again, becoming the first secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine.
He held this post until his move to Moscow in December 1949. In 1949–
1953 he was the first secretary of the Moscow Party Committee and
secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU.
In June 1953 after the death of Joseph Stalin, Khrushchev was one
of the main initiators of the displacement from the posts of Lavrentiy Beria.
On September 7, 1953 he was elected first secretary of the CPSU Central
Committee. In March 1958 Khrushchev assumed the post of Chairman
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