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with the Mensheviks. In January 1913 Stalin published “his most famous
work” – article “Marxism and the National Question” under the nickname
“K. Stalin”, this name he had been using since 1912. This name derived
from the Russian language word for steel and has been translated as “Man
of Steel”; maybe he intended to imitate Lenin's nickname. Stalin retained
this name for the rest of his life.
In February 1913 Stalin was arrested in Saint Petersburg and sent
to four years exile in Turukhansk, a remote part of Siberia, difficult for
escape. In March 1914 because of escape attempt, the authorities moved
Stalin to the hamlet of Kureika on the edge of the Arctic Circle. In Kureika
Stalin lived closely with the Tunguses and Ostyak and spent much of his
time fishing. Russia entered the First World War, and in October 1916
Stalin and other exiled Bolsheviks were conscripted into the Russian
Army. They arrived in Krasnoyarsk in February 1917, where a medical
commission considered Stalin as unfit for military service due to his
disable arm.
Stalin was in the Petrograd when the February Revolution took place:
Tsar Nicholas II was replaced by a Provisional Government. Stalin was
appointed as the Bolshevik representative to the Executive Committee
of the Petrograd Soviet. In April Stalin came third in the Bolshevik
elections for the Central Committee, Lenin came first and Zinoviev came
second. This reflected his position in the party at the time. Stalin took care
of Lenin's safety, moving him between Petrograd safe houses before
Razliv. In Lenin's absence Stalin continued editing “Pravda”.
Lenin proposed the idea of rebellion. Stalin and Leo Trotsky supported
Lenin's plan of action, but it was opposed by other members of the party.
Lenin returned to Petrograd and had a meeting of the Central Committee
on 10 October. On 24 October police raided the Bolshevik newspaper
offices. On 25 October Stalin joined Lenin at a Central Committee
meeting in the Smolny Institute from where the October Revolution was
directed. Bolshevik forces seized Petrograd's electric power station, main
post office, banks and several bridges.
41
The Provisional Government was arrested by the Bolsheviks. Stalin's
role in the revolution was visible. Later Bolshevik opponents of Stalin
used this to show that his role in the revolution was insignificant.
On 26 October a new government was formed – the Council of People's
Commissars (“Sovnarkom”). Stalin was soon part of the government,
because Sverdlov died in March 1919. Stalin's office was based near
to Lenin's in the Smolny. He and Trotsky were the only individuals who
allowed access to Lenin's study without an appointment. Stalin's
importance among the Bolsheviks grew. Stalin was appointed as
the People's Commissar of Nationalities. Stalin took Nadezhda Alliluyeva
as his secretary, he was a friend of her parents. Stalin married her.
In December 1918 Stalin was sent to Perm to check how the Red Army
troops based there they had been attacked by White Army under Alexander
Kolchak. In February 1920 Stalin was appointed as a head of the Workers'
and Peasants' Inspectorate and he was transferred to the Caucasian Front. As
People's Commissar of Nationalities, Stalin believed that each nation and
ethnic group should have the right of self-expression like “autonomous
republics” within the Russian state. Stalin opposed the idea of separating
of Georgian, Armenian, and Azerbaijani autonomous republics, instead he
insisted on the formation of a Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet
Republic. Stalin travelled to native Georgia and met his son Yakov, brought
him back to Moscow with him. Alliluyeva had given birth to another
of Stalin's son, Vasily, in March 1921.
At the 11th Party Congress in 1922 Stalin was nominated as
the party's new General Secretary after this he got too much power. But
Lenin wrote about Stalin in January 1923: “I therefore propose
to comrades that they should devise a means of removing him from this
job and should appoint to this job someone else who is distinguished from
comrade Stalin in all other respects only by the single superior aspect that
he should be more tolerant, politer and more attentive towards comrades,
less capricious, etc.”
In May 1922 after a massive stroke Lenin was partially paralyzed and
lived in Gorki. Lenin's main connection to Sovnarkom was through Stalin,
42
who was a regular visitor. They also disagreed on the basis of the Soviet
state. A compromise was reached and the country would be named
the “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics” (USSR). The USSR's formation
was ratified in December 1922. When Lenin died in January 1924, Stalin
took care of his funeral. It was incorporated into a growing personality
cult devoted to Lenin, with Petrograd being renamed “Leningrad” that
year. Stalin was eager to present himself as a theorist, giving nine lectures
at the University on the “Foundations of Leninism”, later it was published.
At the following 13th Congress of Party, Lenin's Testament was read
to senior figures. Stalin saved his position of General Secretary. In his
private life he divided his time between his Kremlin apartment
and a dacha. His wife bore a daughter, Svetlana, in February 1926.
There were some opponents against Stalin such as Bukharin,
Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov, Tomsky and Trotsky. Stalin saw Trotsky as
his main opponent to his dominance in the Communist Party, while Lenin
had been ill he had formed an anti-Trotsky alliance with Kamenev and
Zinoviev. He was supported in this by Bukharin, who like Stalin. In late
1920-s Stalin removed Kamenev and Zinoviev's supporters from key
positions. In 1925 Kamenev and Zinoviev started open struggle against
Stalin and Bukharin. But they were attacked one another at the 14th Party
Congress by Stalin. After that Kamenev and Zinoviev joined with
Trotsky's supporters to form the United Opposition against Stalin.
In October 1927 Zinoviev and Trotsky were removed from the Central
Committee, Trotsky was exiled to Kazakhstan and then deported from
the country in 1929. Stalin established himself as the supreme leader
of the party, although was not the head of government.
Task 1. Answer the following questions:
1. What family was Stalin born in?
2. What education did he receive?
3. How many times was Stalin arrested and sent to exile?
4. When did Stalin become a member of a Social Democratic Party?
5. What relations had Stalin with V. Lenin?
43
6. Who was a wife of Stalin?
7. How many children had Stalin?
8. Why did Stalin become a leader of the party after Lenin’s death?
9. What plan of the USSR organization did Stalin propose?
10. Who were opponents of Stalin in Party?
Task 2. Watch a video “Biography Joseph Stalin Red Terror
Documentary”: www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhaP_zIpDeU.
How can you describe J. Stalin?
PART 2
In November 1927 Joseph Stalin launched his “revolution above”
by setting two extraordinary goals for Soviet domestic policy: rapid
industrialization and collectivization of agriculture. His aims were
to erase all traces of the capitalism that had entered under the New
Economic Policy and to transform the Soviet Union as quickly as possible
into an industrialized and socialist state.
The USSR underwent a massive economic transformation. New
mines were opened, new cities like Magnitogorsk were constructed. Many
of the major construction projects like the White Sea-Baltic Canal and
the Moscow Metro were constructed by forced labor. To promote
the intensification of labor, a series of medals and awards as well as
the Stakhanov’s movement were introduced. Stalin's message was that
socialism was being established in the USSR.
The First Five-Year Plan was adopted by the Party in 1928. This
plan called for rapid industrialization of the economy, with an emphasis
on heavy industry. It set goals that were unrealistic – a 250 percent
increase in overall industrial development and a 330 percent expansion
in heavy industry. All industry and services were nationalized, directors
of plants were given predetermined output quotas by central planners,
and trade unions were converted into tools for increasing worker
productivity. Many new industrial centers were developed, particularly
in the Urals, and thousands of new plants were built throughout
the country. But because Stalin insisted on unrealistic production targets,
44
serious problems rose soon. With the greatest share of investment put
into heavy industry, widespread shortages of consumer goods occurred.
Under Stalin agriculture was socialized, and a massive bureaucracy
was created to administer policy. In 1929 the Politburo announced
the mass collectivization of agriculture, establishing kolkhozy and
sovkhozy. It is believed that collectivization would improve agricultural
productivity and would produce grain reserves sufficiently large to feed
the growing urban labor force. The anticipated surplus was to pay
for industrialization. Collectivization was further expected to free many
peasants for industrial work in the cities and to enable the party to extend
its political dominance over the peasantry.
Stalin's campaign of forced collectivization begun in the autumn
of 1929. Confiscated land, machinery, livestock, and grain stores
of the peasantry took place. In defiance peasants slaughtered their
livestock rather than surrender it to the collectives. As a result, within
five years the number of horses, cattle, and hogs in the country was
halved, and the number of sheep and goats was reduced by two-thirds.
In early 1928 Stalin travelled to Novosibirsk, there claiming that
kulaks stole the grain. He ordered that the kulaks be arrested and their
grain confiscated, much grain sent back to Moscow. At his command
grain procurement were made from Western Siberia till the Urals with
violence. Stalin accused both kulaks and the “middle peasants” as
enemies. Bukharin and several other members of the Central Committee
were angry because they had not been consulted about this measure.
In January 1930 the Politburo approved a measure to liquidate the kulaks
as a class. Kulaks were sent to exile to other parts of the country, or
to concentration camps. Large numbers died during the journey. By July
1930 over 320,000 households had been affected by the de-kulakisation
policy. About one million kulak households (some 5 million people)
were deported and never heard from again. By 1932, about 62%
of households involved in agriculture were part of collectives, and
by 1936 this had risen to 90%. By 1937 approximately 99%
of the countryside had been collectivized. About 7 million starved
to death as the government confiscated grain stores.
45
Forced collectivization of the peasants resulted in a disastrous
disruption of agricultural productivity and a catastrophic famine in 1932–
1933. Private ownership of property entirely eliminated. Aside from the
immediate devastation wrought by forced collectivization, the experience
left an enduring legacy of mutual distrust and hostility between the rural
population and the Soviet authorities. Forced collectivization helped
achieve Stalin's goal of rapid industrialization, but the human costs were
uncountable.
During Stalin's regime, virtually all farmland was assigned to the two
basic agricultural production entities that still predominated in the 1980s –
state farms and collective farms. The state farm (sovkhoz) was conceived
in 1918 as the ideal model for socialist agriculture. It was to be a large,
modern enterprise, directed and financed by the government, with a work
force receiving wages and social benefits comparable to those enjoyed
by industrial workers.
By contrast, the collective farm (kolkhoz) was a self-financed
producer cooperative, which land granted free by the state and which
paid its members according to their contribution of work. In theory
the kolkhoz was self-directed, electing its own managing committee and
chairman. In reality it remained under the firm control of state planning
and procurement agencies. Chairmen who did not meet ideological
requirements were removed.
Sovkhozy operated like any other production enterprise in the Soviet
command economy, with production targets and operating budgets
determined by distant planning organs. The entire output of sovskhozy
was delivered to state procurement agencies. Kolkhozy also received
procurement quotas, but they were free to sell additional production
in collective farm markets, where prices were determined by supply and
demand. Because kolkhozy were self-financed, they received higher
prices for their products. The income of the kolkhoz worker was usually
lower than that of the sovkhoz worker. In general, labor productivity
in the sovkhoz was higher, probably because of its access to better
machinery, chemicals, and seed and because it could specialize
46
in the crops best suited to its region. The kolkhoz was constrained
to produce a variety of crops and livestock, which decreased efficiency.
During the second half of the 1920s, Joseph Stalin set the stage for
gaining absolute power by employing police repression against opposition
elements in the Communist Party. The machinery of repressions had been
used against opponents of Bolshevism. The first victims were Politburo
members – Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, who were
defeated and expelled from the party in 1927. Then Stalin turned against
Nikolay Bukharin, who was announced as a “right opposition”.
Stalin had eliminated all potential opposition to his leadership by late
1934 and was the unchallenged leader of the Party and the state. He
proceeded to purge the party and to terrorize the entire country with
arrests and executions. During the Great Terror, which included trials
of Stalin's Bolshevik opponents in 1936–1938 and reached its peak
in 1937 and 1938, millions of ordinary Soviet citizens were sent to labor
camps or killed in prison.
The murder of Sergey Kirov on December 1, 1934 set a chain
of events that culminated in the Great Terror of the 1930s. Kirov was
a full member of the Politburo, leader of the Leningrad party apparatus,
and an influential member of the political elite. He was good orator and
earned popularity. Some party members proposed Kirov an opportunity
to become a general secretary. So, Kirov could represent a threat
to Stalin's predominance, because he disagreed with Stalin's policy. Stalin
doubted the loyalty of members of the Leningrad apparatus. Stalin
decided that murder of Kirov would be expedient. The murder was carried
out by a young assassin Leonid Nikolaev. Recent evidence indicated that
Stalin and the NKVD planned this crime.
Stalin used the murder as an excuse for conducting of a witch-hunt
for conspirators against Kirov. Next four years millions of ordinary
members of the party and others were arrested. From the Soviet point
of view, Kirov’s murder was the crime of the century because it was
the way for the Great Terror. Stalin never visited Leningrad again.
47
The Soviet system of forced labor camps was established in 1919
for the first time under the Cheka, but by the early 1930s the camp
population reached significant numbers. Prisoners included murderers,
thieves, other criminals and political and religious dissenters. The Gulag,
whose camps were located mainly in remote regions of Siberia and
the Far North, made significant contributions to the Soviet economy
in the period of industrialization. Gulag prisoners built the White SeaBaltic Canal, the Moscow-Volga Canal, the Baikal-Amur main railroad
line, numerous hydroelectric stations, strategic roads and industrial
enterprises in remote regions. GULAG manpower was also used for much
of the mining of coal, copper and gold in the country.
Conditions in such camps were extremely severe. Prisoners received
inadequate food rations and insufficient clothes for cold weather and long
working hours. Sometimes they were physically abused by camp guards.
As a result, the death rate from exhaustion and disease in the camps was
high. After Stalin died in 1953, the Gulag population was reduced
significantly and conditions for prisoners were improved.
Stalin ruled as absolute dictator of the Soviet Union throughout
World War II and until his death in March 1953.
Task 1. Write more information about …
1. When did Stalin implement the first five-year plan ____________?
2. Compulsory primary school attendance _____________________.
3. Due to the five year plans it is estimated that from 1928–1940 coal
and iron industries' production roughly what?
4. During Stalin's totalitarian rule there was a move towards the cult
of what?
5. How many people were sent to the gulags during The Great Terror ….
6. In the 1930s what % of Moscow's population were living in one
room shared between two or more households _____________________.
7. When was it claimed that 98% of all peasants worked
on collectives _______________________________________________?
48
8. When did the famine occur which is considered to be a result
1. 40 million
A. How many people were sent to the gulags
during The Great Terror.
2. 1936–1938
B. In the 1930's living space had fallen from
8.5 m to how many meters squared per person.
3. 5.8
C. Stalin implemented an internal reconstruction
programme and devised strategies to deal with
the Cold War.
4. 1945–1953
D. Between what years did The Great Terror
take place.
5. 6.9 million
E. In 1931, 2.5 million pupils attended
secondary schools, how many pupils attended
in 1932.
of the harsh implementation of collectivization ____________________?
9. When was Stalin's new constitution introduced. This meant that
the peoples of the USSR were meant to have more representation and
autonomy, but the new political structure was still dominated by the key
members of the Communist Party.
10. Russia was renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
__________________________________________________________.
11. Emphasis on industrial production, especially for the military
(production of atomic weapons) ________________________________.
12. Stalin takes over after Lenin ____________________________.
13. A propaganda tool used to show Lenin as the father of his people
and Stalin as the superman taking the USSR to the promised land
of communism.
14. Purges: Stalin eliminates any opponents ___________________.
15. Collectivization: collecting farmlands together to be farmed
by peasants collectively and produce given to the government for
distribution; unsuccessful in the long run because of lack of innovation
__________________________________________________________.
Task 2. Match terms and definitions:
49
6. 1930
F. Collectivization of agriculture started in?
7. 1939
G. Between what years did The Great Terror
take place.
8. 1936–1938
H. Scrapping of school fees.
9. 1928
L. When did Stalin implement the first five-
year plan.
10. 1929
J. Compulsory primary school attendance.
Task 3. Answer the questions:
1. Stalin used show trials, purges and what secret police group
during the great terror:
A. NKVD.
B. proletariat.
C. 1928.
D. doubled.
2. Collectivization of agriculture started in?
A. 1930.
B. 1939.
C. 1928.
D. 1929.
3. When was it claimed that 98% of all peasants worked
on collectives?
A. 1941.
B. 1932–1934.
C. 1953.
D. 1936.
4. Collectivization lead to % fall in population in Kazakhstan
as peasants moved out of the region and into China:
A. 1929.
B. 75 %.
C. 25 %.
D. 6 %.
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