Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Стилистика. Учебное пособие
.pdf
libraries: they remain alive from generation to generation, and speak in as
FORM
OFFICIAL STYLE
SCIENTIFIC STYLE
PUBLICIST STYLE
Written
Agenda
Article
Essay
Oral
Negotiations
Lecture
Public speech
authoritative a voice to one age to another [Leech, 1969: 10-13].
All the above mentioned styles are singled out within the literary type of the
language, characterized by the intentional approach of the speaker towards the choice
of language means, formal and preplanned nature.
On the contrary, the colloquial type of the language is characterized by
spontaneity and informality of the communicative situation. Alongside this
consideration there exist a strong tendency to treat colloquial speech as an individual
language system with its independent set of language units and rules of their
connection [Кухаренко, 2009: 8-9].
Each of the enumerated styles is exercised in two forms (varieties): written and
oral (spoken). The spoken form (variety) has a lot of advantages, such as human
voice, gestures, and other extra-linguistic factors. The elements of the spoken
language are often found in the belles-lettres style, but the author stylizes them in this
case. The written form (variety) is interpreted as more explanatory; it is better
organized and explicit:
Table 53 – Styles & Forms of Language
From the functional point of view style is something that differentiates some
group of texts from other ones. Each FS is subdivided into a number of substyles their features are both common to the FS and peculiar to each variety. It is uneasy to
analyze what is meant by foregrounding being „systematic‟, however let us balance
on the foregrounding of the function in each style.
3.1. Publicist Style
The publicist style of language dated from the 17th century. It took more than a
century to establish a style and a standard of its own, so it became discernible in the
middle of the 18th century.
The general aim of the publicistic style is to exert a constant and deep influence
on public opinion, to convince the reader (or the listener) that the given interpretation
is the only correct one, to cause him to accept the expressed point of view not merely
through logical argumentation but through emotional appeal as well.
As for the newspaper constituent, it serves the purpose of informing and
instructing the reader. All kinds of newspaper writing are also both informative and
evaluative.
The combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal makes this FS
close to the style of scientific prose, on one hand (coherent and logical syntactical
structure, an expanded system of connectives, careful paragraphing); and to the
81
emotive prose, on the other (the use of words with emotive meaning, the use of
#
FEATURE
EXAMPLES
1
Direct address to the
audience by special
formulas.
Ladies and Gentlemen! My Lords! Mr. Chairman!
Honourable Members! Highly esteemed members of
the conference! Dear Friends! Mark you! Mind!
2
Special formulas at the
end of the speech to
thank the audience for
their attention.
Thank you very much. Thank you for your time.
3
The use of the 1st
person pronoun we; 2nd
person pronoun you.
We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men
are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness
(Th. Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence).
4
The use of contractions.
We‘re talking about healing our nation. We‘re not
talking about politics. We‘re all here to do everything
in our power to save live… I‘m here to thank you for
hearing that call. Actually, I shouldn‘t be thanking
imagery which is not genuine). Moreover, the publicist style has features in common
with some elements of emotionally colored colloquial type of language. Indeed, in
this case the author has no need to make his text impersonal (as in scientific or
official style) – on the contrary, he tries to approximate his text to lively
communication, as though he were talking to people in direct contact.
Publicist style is characterized by brevity of expression. In some substyles it
becomes a leading feature, an important linguistic means. Thus, in essays brevity
sometimes become epigrammatic. The reporting of news whether in the spoken or
written media reflects one of the most difficult and constraining situations to be found
in the area of language use. The chief constraint is the perpetual battle against the
pressures of time and space [Гумовская, 2008: 192].
Publicist style falls into six varieties, each performing the phatic function and
having their own distinctive features.
3.1.1. Oratory & Speeches
This style is evident in speeches on political and social problems of the day, in
orations and addresses on solemn occasions as public weddings, funerals and
jubilees, in sermons and debates and also in the speeches of counsel and judges in
courts of law.
In oratory and speeches direct contact with the listeners permits a combination
of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken
varieties of language (oral form, use of gestures) [Гумовская, 2008: 175].
Table 54 - Typical Features of Oratory
82
you, I should be thanking a Higher Power for giving
you the call (George W. Bush).
5
Features of colloquial
style such as asking the
audience questions or
calling upon the
audience.
Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with
the government of himself. Can he, then, be trusted
with the government of others? Or have we found
angels in the forms of kings to govern him?..
Let us then, with courage and confidence, pursue our
own federal and republican principles (Th. Jefferson).
Repetition can be regarded as the most typical stylistic device of the English
#
SD
EFFECT
1
Repetition
As the audience relies only on memory, the speaker often resorts to
repetitions to enable his listeners to follow him and retain the main
points of his speech. Repetition is also retorted to in order to
convince the audience, to add weight to the speaker‟s opinion. Not
to bore the audience and not to destroy the contact, synonymic
phrase repetition is often used.
2
Questions1
They promote closer contact with the audience. The change of
intonation breaks the monotony of the intonation pattern and
revives the attention of the listeners.
3
Simile
Generally traditional ones, because genuine SDs may divert the
attention of the audience away from the main point of speech. If a
genuine metaphor is used by an orator, it is usually sustained.
4
Metaphor
5
Allusion
They depend on the content of the speech and the cultural level of
the audience.
oratorical style:
Table 55 - Stylistic Devices in Oratory
Almost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, antithesis, climax,
rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative. It will be no exaggeration to say
that almost all typical syntactical devices can be found in English oratory. Sometimes
abundance of the ornamental elements hides the fact that the speaker has no thought
at all.
In political speeches, the need for applause is paramount, and much of the
distinctive rhetoric of a political speech is structured in such a way as to give the
audience the maximum chance to applaud. One widely used technique is an
adaptation of an ancient rhetorical structure - the three-part list: X, Y, and Z. These
lists are not of course restricted to politics only: signed, sealed and delivered; Father,
11
It is interesting, that usually the questions politicians receive are rarely straightforward, but are preceded by a
series of often unclear and controversial claims. What the questioner will receive is better categorized as a response
rather than an answer. Nevertheless, Skilled politicians can resort to several techniques in order to evade an awkward
question e.g. to ignore the question, to decline to answer it, or acknowledge it without answering it, etc.
83
Son, and Holy Spirit; Tom, Dick, and Harry; the truth, the whole truth, and nothing
#
FEATURE
COMMENTS
1
Brevity of expression.
Sometimes to the epigrammatic degree.
2
The use of the 1st person singular.
Which justifies a personal approach to
the treated problems.
3
The abundant use of emotive words.
4
Expanded use of connectives.
Which facilitate the process of grasping
the correlation of ideas.
5
The use of similes and sustained
metaphors.
As one of the media of the cognitive
process.
but the truth; this, that, and the other.
Such lists, supported by a strong rhythm and a clear rising + falling intonation
sequence, convey a sense of rhetorical power, structural control, and semantic
completeness, with the third item providing a climax of expression which can act as a
cue for applause [Гумовская, 2008: 178].
3.1.2. Essay
As a separate form of English literature the essay dates from the 16th century on
the publication of Montaigne‟s Essays, a new literary form created by the French
writer.
The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social,
aesthetic or literary subjects. It never goes deep into the subject, but touches upon the
surface. Personality in the treatment of theme and naturalness of expression are two
of the most obvious characteristics [Гуревич, 1977: 293].
In comparison with oratorical substyle, the essay aims at a more lasting, slower
effect. There are five most prominent language features, interrelation of which creates
the real secret of the essay substyle:
Table 56 - Language Features of Essay
3.1.3. Journalistic Article & Editorial
The character of the journal as well as the chosen subject affects the choice and
use of SDs:
1) in popular scientific articles words of emotive meaning are few, the
system of connectives is more expanded,
2) the language of political magazine articles includes rare and bookish
words, literal coinages (which sometimes require explanation in the text), traditional
word-combinations and parenthesis,
3) literary reviews stand closer to essays (more abstract words of logical
meaning are used in them, the often resort to emotional language and less frequently
to traditional set-expressions).
84
Editorials comment on the political and other events of the day, giving the
editor‟s opinion on the news published. To influence the reader, different ways of
emotional coloring are used:
a lot of colloquial words, such as slang, professionalisms (especially, the
combination of different strata of vocabulary produces great emotional
effect);
trite metaphors and epithets, e.g.: international climate, a price spiral;
traditional periphrases, e.g. Wall Street, the Great Powers;
genuine metaphors, irony, decomposition of set-phrases;
allusions (allusions to the political and other facts of the day do not
produce the stylistic effect; historical, literary and biblical allusions do);
parallel constructions, repetition, rhetorical questions.
In general, original forms of expression and fresh genuine stylistic means are
rare in editorials because the tradition reigns supreme in the language of journals and
newspapers.
3.1.4. Brief News Items
The reporting of news whether in the spoken or written media reflects one of
the most difficult and constraining situations to be found in the area of language use.
The chief constraint is the perpetual battle against the pressure of time and space.
These pressures are strict: to fit a column, 20 words need to be cut; to fit a radio
window, 16 seconds of a script may need to go [Гумовская, 192].
The principal function of a brief news item seems to inform the reader.
Nevertheless, any presentation of material reports directly to ideology and politics.
There are several distinctive linguistic features of the reporting:
1. The headline is critical, summarizing and drawing attention to the story.
Its telegraphic style is probably the best-known feature of news reporting.
2. The first paragraph both summarizes and begins to tell the story. This
paragraph is the source of the headline.
3. The original source of the story is given, either in by-line (Reuters), or
built into the text (e.g. A senior White House official said…).
4. The participants are categorized, their name usually being preceded by a
general term (champ, prisoner, official) and adjectives (handsome French singer J.
Bruno…).
5. Other features include explicit time and place location (In Paris
yesterday…), facts and figures (56 people were…), and direct or indirect quotations
(PM ‗bungles‘, says expert).
85
Brief news items state facts without giving comments, so evaluation is implicit
#
LANGUAGE
LEVEL
FEATURES
1
Lexis
The vocabulary of brief news items is usually devoid of
emotional coloring.
Some papers (those classed among „mass‟ or „popular‟
papers), however, tend to introduce emotionally colored lexical
units into essentially matter-of-fact news.
2
Grammar
Complex sentences with a developed system of clauses.
Verbal constructions (infinitive, participial, gerundial) and
verbal noun constructions (by announcing the disbanding).
Syntactical complexes (the nominative with the infinitive).
These constructions are used to avoid mentioning the source of
information or they shun responsibility to the facts retorted (was
said to be, is believed to have been explored).
Attributive noun groups (means of effecting brevity in
news items – heart swap patient, national income and
expenditure).
Specific word-order. Journalistic practice has developed
what is called the „FIVE-W-AND-H-PATTERN RULE‟ (who-whatwhy-how-where-when) – subject + predicate (object) + adverbial
modifier of reason (manner) + adverbial modifier of place +
adverbial modifier of time.
and unemotional. News items are essentially matter-of-fact, and stereotyped forms of
expression prevail:
Table 57 - Brief News Items
In most cases, the core element of reporting is well-defined: the news bulletin,
consisting of a series of items of varying size, often divided into sections (e.g.
general, business, sport, weather), sometimes punctuated by advertising. Each of
them fits into a format which may be of any length, but often as short as two minutes.
86
3.1.5. Advertisement & Announcement
#
TYPE
FEATURES
1
Classified
Arrangement according to subject-matter into
sections, each bearing an appropriate name. For example,
in The Times the reader never fails to find several hundred
ads and announcements classified into groups, such as
BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, DEATHS, BUSINESS OFFERS,
PERSONAL, etc.
A number of stereotyped patterns: SMITH. – On
November 1
st
, at St. Bartholomew‘s Hospital, to Barbara
and John Smith – a son.
The elliptical sentence structure is purely technical
(to economize expensive space). Sometimes the absence of
all articles and punctuation marks makes the statement
telegram-like. This peculiar brevity of expression is a
stylistic feature of ads and announcements.
The vocabulary is mainly neutral with a sprinkling of
emotionally colored words, used to attract the reader‟s
attention. Emotional coloring is generally moderate.
2
Non-Classified
The variety of language form and subject-matter is great;
the reader‟s attention is attracted by typographical,
graphical, stylistic lexical and syntactical means, as in the
Barkley Bank‟s advertisement in The Guardian:
WHAT WE WANT
A bank‘s business is with other people‘s money, so
we want people whose integrity is beyond question. Money
is a very personal business, so we want people who like
people. Banking is work that calls for accuracy, so we want
people who can work accurately. Our staff has to have
integrity, personality, accuracy. We want them to have
imagination too.
Advertisements made their way into the British press at an early stage of its
development, i.e. in the 17th c. So they are almost as old as newspaper themselves
[Гуревич, 1977: 301-302].
There are two basic types of advertisements and announcements:
Table 58 - Advertisements
For advertisements, as well as for the brief news items, journalistic articles and
editorials, the headline is not the least factor.
87
3.1.6. Headline
#
LANGUAGE
LEVEL
FEATURES
1
Lexis
Emotionally colored words and phrases (e.g. Milk Madness).
Decomposition of set-expressions (Cakes and Bitter Ale).
Puns (And what about Watt?).
Alliteration (Miller in Maniac Mood).
2
Grammar
Full declarative sentences (e.g. Allies Now Look to London),
nominative sentences (Gloomy Sunday), elliptical sentences (Will
Win), complex sentences (Senate Hears the Experts who Favored
Losing).
Interrogative sentences (e.g. Do you love war?), questions in
the form of statements (The worse the better?).
Sentences with articles omitted (Blaze kills 15 at Party).
Phrases with verbals (e.g. Speaking Parts).
Direct speech (e.g. Prince says: ―I was not in trouble‖).
The headline is the title given to a news items or an article. It performs the
double function: (1) to inform the reader briefly what the text that follows is about,
and (2) to interest. So, English headlines are short and catching, they „compact the
gist of new stories into a few eye-snaring words. A skillfully turned out headline tells
a story or enough of it, to arouse or satisfy the reader‘s curiosity‘ [Bastian, 1956:
62].
Sometimes headlines contain elements of appraisal, showing the reporter‟s or
paper‟s attitude to the facts commented on, and instructing the reader.
To attract the reader‟s attention, headline writers often resort to the following
EMs and SDs:
Table 59 - Language Features of Headlines
Expressive means and stylistic devices, used in the headlines, make them
foregrounded. In their turn, they foreground the following text.
Seminar 3.1. Stylistic Analysis of Publicist Papers
In publicist papers stylistic devices are closely interwoven and mutually
complementary thus building up an intricate pattern. For example, an antithesis is
framed by parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition,
while a climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds [Гумовская, 2008:
176].
1. Identify the genres of the following texts and justify your choice. Write
down a stylistic analysis of the First Inaugural Address by Th. Jefferson.
88
2. Write down an essay on Style in Language.
3. Choose 10 English and Russian headlines for the stylistic analysis. Make
statistics of stylistic features on each language level.
4. Make up a non-classified advertisement and present in public.
Text 3.1.1 - First Inaugural Address from Thomas Jefferson The Papers
Friends & Fellow Citizens,
Called upon to undertake the duties of the first Executive office of our country,
I avail myself of the presence of that portion of my fellow citizens which is here
assembled to express my grateful thanks for the favor with which they have been
pleased to look towards me, to declare a sincere consciousness that the task is above
my talents, and that I approach it with those anxious and awful presentiments which
the greatness of the charge, and the weakness of my powers so justly inspire. A rising
nation, spread over a wide and fruitful land, traversing all the seas with the rich
productions of their industry, engaged in commerce with nations who feel power and
forget right, advancing rapidly to destinies beyond the reach of mortal eye; when I
contemplate these transcendent objects, and see the honour, the happiness, and the
hopes of this beloved country committed to the issue and the auspices of this day, I
shrink from the contemplation & humble myself before the magnitude of the
undertaking. Utterly indeed should I despair, did not the presence of many, whom I
here see, remind me, that, in the other high authorities provided by our constitution, I
shall find resources of wisdom, of virtue, and of zeal, on which to rely under all
difficulties. To you, then, gentlemen, who are charged with the sovereign functions of
legislation, and to those associated with you, I look with encouragement for that
guidance and support which may enable us to steer with safety the vessel in which we
are all embarked, amidst the conflicting elements of a troubled world.
During the contest of opinion through which we have past, the animation of
discusions and of exertions has sometimes worn an aspect which might impose on
strangers unused to think freely, and to speak and to write what they think; but this
being now decided by the voice of the nation, announced according to the rules of the
constitution all will of course arrange themselves under the will of the law, and unite
in common efforts for the common good. All too will bear in mind this sacred
principle, that though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, that will, to be
rightful, must be reasonable; that the minority possess their equal rights, which equal
laws must protect, and to violate would be oppression. Let us then, fellow citizens,
unite with one heart and one mind, let us restore to social intercourse that harmony
and affection without which liberty, and even life itself, are but dreary things. And let
us reflect that having banished from our land that religious intolerance under which
mankind so long bled and suffered, we have yet gained little if we countenance a
political intolerance, as despotic, as wicked, and capable of as bitter and bloody
persecutions. During the throes and convulsions of the ancient world, during the
agonising spasms of infuriated man, seeking through blood and slaughter his long
lost liberty, it was not wonderful that the agitation of the billows should reach even
89
this distant and peaceful shore; that this should be more felt and feared by some and
less by others; and should divide opinions as to measures of safety; but every
difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. We have called by different
names brethren of the same principle. We are all republicans: we are all federalists.
If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union, or to change its
republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which
error of opinion may be tolerated, where reason is left free to combat it. I know
indeed that some honest men fear that a republican government cannot be strong;
that this government is not strong enough. But would the honest patriot, in the full
tide of successful experiment, abandon a government which has so far kept us free
and firm, on the theoretic and visionary fear, that this government, the world‘s best
hope, may, by possibility, want energy to preserve itself? I trust not. I believe this, on
the contrary, the strongest government on earth. I believe it the only one, where every
man, at the call of the law, would fly to the standard of the law, and would meet
invasions of the public order as his own personal concern.—Sometimes it is said that
man cannot be trusted with the government of himself. Can he then be trusted with
the government of others? Or have we found angels, in the form of kings, to govern
him? Let history answer this question.
Let us then, with courage and confidence, pursue our own federal and
republican principles; our attachment to union and representative government.
Kindly separated by nature and a wide ocean from the exterminating havoc of one
quarter of the globe; too high minded to endure the degradations of the others,
possessing a chosen country, with room enough for our descendants to the
thousandth and thousandth generation, entertaining a due sense of our equal right to
the use of our own faculties, to the acquisitions of our own industry, to honor and
confidence from our fellow citizens, resulting not from birth, but from our actions and
their sense of them, enlightened by a benign religion, professed indeed and practised
in various forms, yet all of them inculcating honesty, truth, temperance, gratitude and
the love of man, acknowledging and adoring an overruling providence, which by all
its dispensations proves that it delights in the happiness of man here, and his greater
happiness hereafter; with all these blessings, what more is necessary to make us a
happy and a prosperous people? Still one thing more, fellow citizens, a wise and
frugal government, which shall restrain men from injuring one another, shall leave
them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of industry and improvement, and
shall not take from the mouth of labor the bread it has earned. This is the sum of
good government; and this is necessary to close the circle of our felicities.
About to enter, fellow citizens, on the exercise of duties which comprehend
every thing dear and valuable to you, it is proper you should understand what I deem
the essential principles of our government, and consequently those which ought to
shape its administration. I will compress them within the narrowest compass they will
bear, stating the general principle, but not all its limitations.—Equal and exact
justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political:—peace,
commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none:—
the support of the state governments in all their rights, as the most competent
90
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]