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Table 26 – Rhyme Identity
TYPE OF
RHYME
FEATURES
EXAMPLE
PERFECT
(COMPLETE)
Identity of the vowel sound and the following
consonant sounds in a stressed syllable.
sky - high
IMPERFECT
(INCOMPLETE)
In VOWEL RHYMES the vowels of the syllables in
corresponding words are identical, but the consonant
are different.
flesh -
press
CONSONANT RHYMES show the concordance in
consonants.
tale - tool
COMPOUND
Modifications of rhyming make one word rhyme with a
corresponding two or three words. Perceived in reading
aloud.
bottom –
shot him
EYE-RHYME
The letters and not the sounds are identical (many of
them are the result of historical changes in the vowel
sounds). Perceived in the written verse.
love prove
Rhymes usually involve the last syllable of the words which rhyme. So,
canonical rhyme is defined partly in terms of phonemic parallelism in the final
syllable of the rhyming words and partly in terms of position in the poetic line. An
example would be Mankind and behind, (/ / and / in phonemic
script) from Pope's The Rape of the Lock. But there are also INTERNAL RHYMES -
between words which are not in line-final position, as in the line by Shelley: I bring
fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. Internal rhyme breaks the line into two
distinct parts, at the same time more strongly consolidating the ideas expressed in
these two parts. Thus, rhyme simultaneously possesses two functions – dissevering
and consolidating.
Perfect rhymes can be classified according to the number of syllables included
in the rhyme, which is dictated by the location of the final stressed syllable.
MASCULINE: a rhyme in which the stress is on the final syllable of the
words (e.g. rhyme - sublime)
FEMININE: a rhyme in which the stress is on the penultimate (second
from last) syllable of the words (e.g. picky - tricky)
DACTYLIC: a rhyme in which the stress is on the antepenultimate (third
from last) syllable (e.g. cacophonies - Aristophanes).
Rhyme and alliteration relate to the rhythmic measure, i.e. the unit of rhythmic
patterning extending from the onset of one stressed syllable to the onset of the next
[Leech, 1969: 91].
31
RHYTHM
SYSTEM OF
VERIFICATION
LANGUAGE
PRINCIPAL FEATURES
Syllabic
System
French
The same number of syllables in different lines,
whether stressed or unstressed.
Tonic System
Anglo-Saxon
The number of stressed syllables.
Syllabic-
Tonic System
English,
Russian
The same number of stressed and unstressed
syllables.
TYPE OF FEET
FEATURES
EXAMPLES
TROCHEE
(pronounced
/ /)
With two
syllables,
the first
stressed.
Should you ask me, whence these stories?
Whence these legends and traditions,
With the odours of the forest,
With the dew and damp of meadows.
(W. Longfellow)
Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms.
It is a mighty weapon in stirring up emotions whatever its origin or nature, whether it
is musical, mechanical or symmetrical (as in architecture). Rhythm links the language
most closely to music, both existing in the dimension of time.
Rhythm (pronounced / /) is a flow, movement, procedure, etc.,
characterized by basically regular recurrence of elements with their opposites (long –
short, stressed – unstressed, high – low, and other contrasting segments of speech).
Rhythm is the main factor which brings order into the utterance. It is a
deliberate arrangement of speech into regularly recurring units intended to be grasped
as a definite periodicity which makes rhythm a stylistic device. There are different
language systems of verification all over the world:
Table 27 – Verification
RHYTHM IN VERSE is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the
variations of it, variations which are governed by the standard, for example, in a
poem by Shelley:
When the lamp is shattered
The light in the dust lies dead;
When the cloud is scattered,
The rainbow‘s glory is shed.
A division of the poetic line from stress to stress, which contains one stressed
syllable and one or two unstressed syllables, is called a FOOT. It is the main unit of
rhythm in poetic speech. According to the correlation of stressed and unstressed
syllables within the foot, different types of feet may be distinguished [for other types
of feet go to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_(prosody)]:
Table 28 - Feet
32
Мчатся тучи, вьются тучи
Невидимкою луна
Освещает снег летучий;
Мутно небо, ночь мутна.
(А.С. Пушкин)
IAMBUS
(pronounced
/ /)
IAMB
(pronounced
/ˈaɪæm/)
With two
syllables,
the second
stressed.
Lo, thus I triumph like a king,
Content with that my mind doth bring.
(E. Dyer)
О память сердца! Ты сильней
Рассудка памяти печальной
И часто сладостью своей
Меня в стране пленяешь дальной.
(К.Н. Батюшков)
DACTYL
(pronounced
/ /)
With three
syllables,
the first
stressed.
Just for a handful of silver he left us
Just for a riband to stick in his coat.
(R. Browning)
Утро туманное, утро седое,
Нивы печальные, снегом покрытые,
Нехотя вспомнишь и время былое,
Вспомнишь и лица, давно позабытые.
(И.С. Тургенев)
AMPHIBRACH
(pronounced
/ˈæmfɪˌbræk/)
With three
syllables,
with the
third
stressed.
And NOW comes an act of Enormous Enormance!
No former performer's performed this performance!
(Dr. Seuss)
Пусть сосны и ели
Всю зиму торчат,
В снега и метели
Закутавшись спят.
(Ф.И. Тютчев)
ANAPAEST
(pronounced
/ /)
With three
syllables,
with the
third
stressed/
The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee.
(Byron)
Что ты жадно глядишь на дорогу
В стороне от весѐлых подруг?
(Н.А. Некрасов)
33
The type of foot and the number of feet in the line determine the METRE of the
NAME
FEATURES
EXAMPLE
BALLAD
STANZA
The four-line stanza,
known as a quatrain,
most often found in
the folk ballad. This
form consists of
alternating four- and
three-stress lines.
Usually only the
second and fourth
lines rhyme (in an
ABCB pattern).
All in a hot and copper sky!
The bloody Sun, at noon,
Right up above the mast did stand,
No bigger than the Moon.
(Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner)
BURNS
STANZA
(SCOTTISH)
The stanza is six lines
in length and rhymes
AAABAB, with
tetrameter A lines and
dimeter B lines. The
second B line may or
may not be repeated.
O THOU! whatever title suit thee -
Auld Hornie, Satan, Nick, or Clootie,
Wha in yon cavern grim an‘ sootie,
Clos‘d under hatches,
Spairges about the brunstane cootie,
To scaud poor wretches!
(R. Burns, Address to the Deil)
OTTAVA
RIMA
(pronounced
/ /)
The stanza of Italian
origin consists of
eight iambic lines,
usually iambic
pentameters. Each
stanza consists of
three alternate
rhymes and one
double rhyme,
He thought he was a kind of living myth
And hence deserving of ottima rima,
The scheme that Ariosto juggled with,
Apt for a lecherous defective dreamer.
He'd have preferred a stronger-muscled
smith,
Anvilling rhymes amid poetic steam, a
Sort of Lord Byron. Byron was long dead.
This poetaster had to do instead.
verse, i.e. iambic trimetre (pronounced / /), amphibrachic tetrameter
(pronounced / /), throchaic pentameter (pronounced / /),
etc.
According to a rhyme scheme, the lines are grouped into a STANZA
(pronounced / /), a unit within a larger poem, set off by a set pattern of meter
and rhyme. In modern poetry, the term stanza is often equivalent with strophe
(pronounced / /) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanza, Retrieved 19.09.2011].
Stanzas can be given a specific name depending on their structure and rhyme
pattern. The most common stanza, one consisting of four lines, is called a quatrain
(pronounced / /); the more seldom one, consisting of two, is called a couplet
(pronounced / /). Other names of stanza are:
Table 29 - Stanza
34
following the
ABABABCC pattern.
(Anthony Burgess, Byrne: A Novel)
SPENSERIAN
STANZA
Each stanza contains
nine lines in total:
eight lines in iambic
pentameter followed
by a single iambic
hexameter. The
rhyme scheme of
these lines is
ABABBCBCC.
Lo I the man, whose Muse whilome did maske,
As time her taught, in lowly Shepheards
weeds,
Am now enforst a far unfitter taske,
For trumpets sterne to chaunge mine Oaten
reeds,
And sing of Knights and Ladies gentle deeds;
Whose prayses hauing slept in silence long,
Me, all too meane, the sacred Muse areeds
To blazon broad emongst her learned throng:
Fierce warres and faithfull loues shall
moralize my song.
(Spenser, Faerie Queene)
SONNET
The form consists of
fourteen lines
structured as three
quatrains and a
couplet. With only a
rare exception, the
meter is iambic
pentameter. The
usual rhyme scheme
is end-rhymed ABAB,
CDCD, EFEF, GG.
Let me not to the marriage of true minds
Admit impediments, love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove.
O no, it is an ever fixèd mark
That looks on tempests and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wand'ring bark,
Whose worth's unknown although his height
be taken.
Love's not time's fool, though rosy lips and
cheeks
Within his bending sickle's compass come,
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom:
If this be error and upon me proved,
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.
(Shakespeare, Sonnet 116)
There may also be BLANK VERSE, in which there is no rhyming, but the rhythm
and metre are to some extent preserved; such is, for instance, the verse of
Shakespeare's King John:
My lord?
A grave.
He shall not live.
Enough.
35
Hence, versification is a question of the interplay between two planes of
structure: the ideally regular, quasi-mathematical pattern (metre), and the actual
rhythm the language insists on [Leech, 1969: 103].
Rhythm reveals itself most conspicuously in music, dance and verse. The
properties of RHYTHM IN PROSE are governed by the same general rules, but they are
not so apparent and falling under different parameters of analysis.
The most observable rhythmic patterns in prose are based on stylistic
syntactical devices (enumeration, repetition, parallel construction and chiasmus).
Thus, in the following passage by J. Galsworthy the paired attributive constructions
make the text rhythmic because of its structural similarity: „The high-sloping roof, of
a fine sooty pink was almost Danish, and two „ducky‟ little windows looked out of it,
giving an impression that very tall servants lived up there‘.
To the extent that any use of language consists in obeying rules, regularity is a
property of language in general. One of the ways in which language shows itself to be
reducible to rule is in the possibility of segmenting a text into structurally equivalent
units: for example, syllables (in phonology) and clauses (in grammar) [Leech, 1969:
62].
Phonological parallelism seems to have its inner structure. A lot of devices
appear to be involved in a correspondence. Thus, in the 1960s there was an
advertising campaign in the UK trying to persuade people to put their seatbelts on
when they got into their cars. The slogan, which was promoted by a famous DJ,
Jimmy Saville, was Clunk Click Every Trip3.
The grammatical boundary between the first two words and the last two is
reinforced rhythmically because Clink Click and Every Trip each have two major
stresses. All this leads to the feeling that the slogan is split into two „half lines‟. The
fact that Clunk and Click alliterate on (a) both consonants in the initial consonant
cluster and (b) the syllable-final consonant, reinforces this division. Finally there is a
half-rhyme between Click and Trip (same vowel and similar final consonant - both
are voiceless stops), reinforcing the idea that there are two „equal‟ line-like units in
the slogan. So rhythm and sound patterns all lead to the idea of „equating‟ Clunk
Click and Every Trip in terms of meaning, via the parallelism rule
[http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/stylistics/topic5a/7symbol3.htm, Retrieved
14.07.2011].
If we now look at the sound symbolic effects, /klʌŋk/ and /klɪk/ are clearly good
candidates for sound symbolism. The two words share considerable phonemic
similarities (three phonemes in equivalent positions in the word). But the difference
between /klʌŋk/ and /klɪk/ is that /klɪk/ has a high front vowel and voiceless stop
consonants, suggesting a sharp, „bright‟ sound, whereas /klʌŋk/ has a low back vowel
instead of /ɪ/ and an added nasal /ŋ/, both suggesting indistinctness. The sequence
/klʌŋk/ before /klɪk/ suggests that the „car driving‟ sound associated with /klʌŋk/
3
The original ad can be found at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddNr7rebaQohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddNr7rebaQo.
36
should come before that associated with /klɪk/. In this way the two words mimic the
shutting of a car door (a low pitched indistinct sound because of the rubber lining
between the edge of the door and its frame) and the putting on of the seat belt (the
more distinct, higher pitched sound of metal against metal or hard plastic). The sound
symbolism is onomatopoeic, but note that the sequencing of the words is also part of
the mimicry, or iconicity4. The „mimicry‟ effects we have explored with respect to
sound symbolism are thus a part of a more general possibility of language mimicking
the world [Bolinger, 1980].
The imitative function of language is not restricted to phonology, but belongs
to the apparatus of expression as a whole. Poems may even be visually emblematic of
their content, as is George Herbert‟s Easter Wings, each stanza of which in print
actually has the shape of a pair of wings [Leech, 1969: 99-100].
2.1.2. Graphological Stylistics
Picture 2 - Easter Wings by G. Herbert
The text by George Herbert belongs to pattern poetry, in which the
typographical arrangement of words is as important in conveying the intended effect
4
In functional-cognitive linguistics, as well as in semiotics, iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy
between the form of a sign (linguistic or otherwise) and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness. Iconic principles: (1)
Quantity principle: conceptual complexity corresponds to formal complexity. (2) Proximity principle: conceptual
distance tends to match with linguistic distance. (3) Sequential order principle: the sequential order of events described
is mirrored in the speech chain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconicity, Retrieved 19.09.2011].
37
as the conventional elements (meaning of words, rhythm, rhyme)
SD
EXAMPLES
EFFECT
GRAPHON
И завыла она страшным
тягучим воем, повторяя,
бесконечно растягивая одни и
те же слова:
- Не могу-у, го-о-лубчики, не
мо-о-г-у-у-у… (Л. Андреев,
Губернатор).
Individualizing the character‟s
speech, graphon adds vividness,
memorability.
Graphon is very good at
conveying the atmosphere of
authentic live communication, of the
informality of the speech act.
Often graphons express the
strength of emotions.
Sometimes they are combined
with onomatopoeia.
Очкастый привстал на одно
колено, целясь в конец улицы,
крикнул:
- Ро-о-та… пли!.. Га-а-ах!
Тах! Тах! Тах! (М. Шолохов,
Донские рассказы).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_poem, Retrieved 23.07.2011].
When we talk about patterns of alliteration, assonance and rhyme, we are
talking about patterns of distinctive speech sounds (phonemes). But people often
confuse sound patterns with spelling patterns. Expressive spelling patterns and visual
peculiarities of a written text deal with graphological stylistics. Thus, gulph and ghyll
(the latter apparently introduced by Wordsworth) are examples of special poetic
spelling, by the side of gulf and gill [Leech, 1969: 16].
In contemporary advertising, mass media, imaginative prose sound is
foregrounded mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation.
This intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word or word-combination used
to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called graphon [Кухаренко, 2009: 14]:
Table 30 - Graphon
Graphical changes may reflect not only the peculiarities of pronunciation, but
are also used to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus
foregrounding the stressed words [Кухаренко, 2009: 15]. Thus, hyphenation suggests
the rhymed or clipped manner of the utterance, as in Grinning like a chim-pan-zee
(Fl. O‟Connor, The Artificial Nigger); capitalization in Help. Help. HELP by A.
Huxley and multiplication in Alllll aboarrrrrd! intensify the speech.
also discourses. Thus in the following example, dashes used to denote the pauses in
speech reflect the manner and strict rhythm of the character‟s footsteps: “Потом,
Some graphical devices are used not within words and word combination, but
заложив руки в карман и оттопырив локти, заходил по комнате сердитыми,
отбивающими такт шагами. Так - ходят - губернаторы‖ (Л. Андреев,
Губернатор).
The term GRAPHOLOGY refers to the whole writing system: punctuation and
paragraphing as well as spelling. To a great extent, English graphology imitates
phonology – that is the written version of the language is a visual coding of its
38
spoken version [Leech, 1969: 39]. But there are some graphological deviations which
have no counterparts in speech:
line by line arrangement on the printed page with irregular right-hand
margins,
discarding of capital letters and punctuation,
jumbling of words,
eccentric use of parenthesis.
E.E. Cummings, an American poet, is well known for the use of graphological
deviations. For him, capitalization, spacing, lineation and punctuation become
expressive devices; he uses the compositor‟s case as an artist palette. Some of his
experiments in visual poetry resemble coded messages, as in #3 of 73 Poems:
seeker of truth
follow no path
all paths lead where
truth is here
According to the lineation, the poem ends with a statement truth is here, but
according to the syntax, truth is should belong to the clause begun in the previous
line, and so here is left on its own as an exclamatory conclusion [Leech, 1969: 47-48]
The phenomenon of graphological deviation deals with grapheme-color
synesthesia, an individual's perception of numbers and letters is associated with the
experience of colors. It is involuntary, consistent, and memorable
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia#Sound_.E2.86.92_color_synesthesia,
Retrieved 14.07.2011]. An example of such experience, correlated with sound
symbolism, is described in the poem Voyelles by Arthur Rimbaud:
A noir, E blanc, I rouge, U vert, O bleu: voyelles,
Je dirai quelque jour vos naissances latentes:
A, noir corset velu des mouches éclatantes
Qui bombinent autour des puanteurs cruelles,
Golfes d'ombre; E, candeurs des vapeurs et des tentes,
Lances des glaciers fiers, rois blancs, frissons d'ombelles;
I, pourpres, sang craché, rire des lèvres belles
Dans la colère ou les ivresses pénitentes;
U, cycles, vibrements divins des mers virides,
Paix des pâtis semés d'animaux, paix des rides
Que l'alchimie imprime aux grands fronts studieux;
O, suprême Clairon plein des strideurs étranges,
Silences traversés des [Mondes et des Anges]:
—O l'Oméga, rayon violet de [Ses] Yeux!
39
VOWELS (translated by Oliver Bernard)
A black, E white, I red, U green, O blue: vowels,
I shall tell, one day, of your mysterious origins:
A, black velvety jacket of brilliant flies
which buzz around cruel smells,
Gulfs of shadow; E, whiteness of vapours and of tents,
lances of proud glaciers, white kings, shivers of cow-parsley;
I, purples, spat blood, smile of beautiful lips
in anger or in the raptures of penitence;
U, waves, divine shudderings of viridian seas,
the peace of pastures dotted with animals, the peace of the furrows
which alchemy prints on broad studious foreheads;
O, sublime Trumpet full of strange piercing sounds,
silences crossed by [Worlds and by Angels]:
–O the Omega! the violet ray of [His] Eyes!
ГЛАСНЫЕ (translated by Н.С. Гумилев)
А - черно, бело - Е, У - зелено, О - сине,
И - красно… Я хочу открыть рождение гласных.
А - траурный корсет под стаей мух ужасных,
Роящихся вокруг как в падали иль в тине,
Мир мрака; Е - покой тумана над пустыней,
Дрожание цветов, взлет ледников опасных.
И - пурпур, сгустком кровь, улыбка губ прекрасных
В их ярости иль в их безумье пред святыней.
У - дивные круги морей зеленоватых,
Луг, пестрый от зверья, покой морщин, измятых
Алхимией на лбах задумчивых людей.
О - звона медного глухое окончанье,
Кометой, ангелом пронзенное молчанье,
Омега, луч Ее сиреневых очей.
Summing up the informational options of the graphical arrangement of a word
or discourse, it is possible to say the graphical changes recreate the individual
peculiarities of the speaker and the atmosphere of the communicative act
[Кухаренко, 2009: 16].
40
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