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administrations for our domestic concerns, and the surest bulwarks against antirepublican tendencies:—the preservation of the General government in its whole
constitutional vigor, as the sheet anchor of our peace at home, and safety abroad: a
jealous care of the right of election by the people, a mild and safe corrective of
abuses which are lopped by the sword of revolution where peaceable remedies are
unprovided:—absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority, the vital
principle of republics, from which is no appeal but to force, the vital principle and
immediate parent of the despotism:—a well disciplined militia, our best reliance in
peace, and for the first moments of war, till regulars may relieve them:—the
supremacy of the civil over the military authority:—economy in the public expence,
that labor may be lightly burthened:—the honest payment of our debts and sacred
preservation of the public faith:—encouragement of agriculture, and of commerce as
its handmaid:—the diffusion of information, and arraignment of all abuses at the bar
of the public reason:—freedom of religion; freedom of the press; and freedom of
person, under the protection of the Habeas Corpus:—and trial by juries impartially
selected. These principles form the bright constellation, which has gone before us
and guided our steps through an age of revolution and reformation. The wisdom of
our sages, and blood of our heroes have been devoted to their attainment:—they
should be the creed of our political faith; the text of civic instruction, the touchstone
by which to try the services of those we trust; and should we wander from them in
moments of error or of alarm, let us hasten to retrace our steps, and to regain the
road which alone leads to peace, liberty and safety.
I repair then, fellow citizens, to the post you have assigned me. With experience
enough in subordinate offices to have seen the difficulties of this the greatest of all, I
have learnt to expect that it will rarely fall to the lot of imperfect man to retire from
this station with the reputation, and the favor, which bring him into it. Without
pretensions to that high confidence you reposed in our first and greatest
revolutionary character, whose pre-eminent services had entitled him to the first
place in his country‘s love, and destined for him the fairest page in the volume of
faithful history, I ask so much confidence only as may give firmness and effect to the
legal administration of your affairs. I shall often go wrong through defect of
judgment. When right, I shall often be thought wrong by those whose positions will
not command a view of the whole ground. I ask your indulgence for my own errors,
which will never be intentional; and your support against the errors of others, who
may condemn what they would not if seen in all its parts. The approbation implied by
your suffrage, is a great consolation to me for the past; and my future solicitude will
be, to retain the good opinion of those who have bestowed it in advance, to conciliate
that of others by doing them all the good in my power, and to be instrumental to the
happiness and freedom of all.
Relying then on the patronage of your good will, I advance with obedience to
the work, ready to retire from it whenever you become sensible how much better
choices it is in your power to make. And may that infinite power, which rules the
destinies of the universe, lead our councils to what is best, and give them a favorable
issue for your peace and prosperity.
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Text 3.1.2 - From Songs of the City by G. Owen
Good afternoon and welcome
To this international
Between England and Holland
Which is being played here today
At 4, Florence Terrace.
And the pitch looks in superb condition
As Danny Markey, the England captain,
Puts England on the attack.
Straight away it‘s Markey
With a lovely little pass to Keegan,
Keegan back to Markey,
Markey in possession here
Jinking skillfully past the dustbins;
And a neat flick inside the cat there.
What a brilliant player this Markey is
And he‘s still only nine years old!
Francis to Markey,
Markey is through, he‘s through
No, he‘s been tackled by the drainpipe;
But he‘s won the ball back brilliantly
And he‘s advancing on the Dutch keeper,
It must be a goal.
No!
It‘s gone into Mrs. Spence‘s next door.
And Markey‘s going round to ask for the ball back
It could be the end of this international.
Now the door‘s opening
And yes, it‘s Mrs. Spence,
Mrs. Spence has come to the door.
Wait a minute
She‘s shaking her head, she‘s shaking her head
She‘s not going to let England have their ball back.
What is the referee going to do?..
Notes
92
3.2. Scientific Style
#
FEATURE
COMMENTS
1
The most highly
developed system of
connectives.
Because of the logical sequence of utterance.
2
The use of terms
specific for each
given branch of
science.
No other field of human activity is so prolific in coining
new words as science is. The necessity to penetrate deeper
into the essence of things and phenomena gives rise to
new concepts, which require new words to name them.
One more interesting fact is the exchange of terms
between various branches of science – this is due to the
interpenetration of scientific ideas. Mathematics has
priority in this respect: its terms have left their domain
and travel freely in other sciences, including linguistics.
3
Special sentence
patterns
Postulatory (every piece of scientific prose begins
with are needing no proof).
Argumentative (the exposition of the writer‟s ideas
accompanied by references to sources).
Formulative (enunciation of a doctrine or theory, of a
principle, the result of an investigation).
Each functional style of the literary language makes use of language means the
interrelation of which is peculiar to the given FS. For instance, the use of special
terminology is a lexical characteristic of the FS of scientific prose, and one by which
it can easily be recognized.
The purpose of the language of science is to prove the hypothesis, to create
new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations
between different phenomena and to analyze them. Thus, it is a domain of the
referential function.
The genre of scientific works is mostly characteristic of the written form of
language (scientific articles, monographs or textbooks), but it may also be found in its
oral form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences).
The language is objective, precise, devoid of any individuality, unemotional.
The form of scientific expression tends to be generalized.
Table 60 - Language Features of Scientific Style
93
The first 100 most frequent words of scientific prose comprise the developed
#
TYPE
EXAMPLES
1
Prepositions
of, to, in, for, with, on, at, by, from, out, about, down
2
Prepositional
phrases
in terms of; in view of, in spite of, in common with, on behalf of,
as a result of; by means of, on the ground of, in case of
3
Conjunctional
phrases
in order that, in case that, in spite of the fact that, on the ground
that, for fear that
#
LEXICAL
CATEGORY
EXAMPLES
1
Verbs of
exposition
ascertain, assume, compare, construct, describe,
determine, estimate, examine, explain, label, plot, record,
test, verify
2
Verbs of warning
and advising
avoid, check, ensure, notice, prevent, remember, take care;
also several negative items: not drop, not spill
3
Verbs of
manipulation
adjust, align, assemble, begin, boil, clamp, connect, cover,
decrease, dilute, extract, fill, immerse, mix, prepare,
release, rotate, switch on, take, weigh
4
Adjectival
modifiers and their
related adverbs
careful(y), clockwise, continuous(ly), final(ly), gradual(ly),
moderate(ly), periodic(ally), secure(ly), subsequent(ly),
vertical(ly)
#
FEATURE
COMMENTS
1
The use of complete sentences
Non-Elliptical.
2
The use of extended complex
Which enable the author to express the
and varied system of connectives:
Table 61 - Connectives
As scientific prose is restricted to formal situations, it employs a special
vocabulary which consists of two main groups: words associated with professional
communication and a less exclusive group of learned words, such as comprise,
compile, experimental, heterogeneous, homogeneous, conclusive, divergent, etc.
A great deal of scientific work involves giving instructions to act in a certain
way, or reporting on the consequences of having so acted:
Table 62 - Language of Scientific Instructions
As for the whole vocabulary, scientific words tend to be used in their primary
logical meanings. There are no words with contextual meaning because every
ambiguity must be avoided. Even terms and words that are self-explanatory are
generally followed by explanation.
There are some features of textual structure to present arguments coherently:
Table 63 - Syntax of Scientific Prose
94
and compound sentences without
omission of conjunctions
relations between the parts more precisely.
3
The use of bookish syntactic
constructions
The compound type of predicate, abstract
nouns, gerundial, participial and infinitive
constructions, extended attributive phrases,
Noun + Noun constructions.
4
The use of references and
quotations.
A definite compositional pattern: the name of
the writer referred to, the title of the work
quoted, the publishing house, the place and
year it was published, the page the extract
refers to.
5
The use of foot-notes digressive
in character.
Some ideas which are not immediately
relevant but which serve to back up the
author‟s idea must be placed in foot-notes.
6
The frequent use of passive and
impersonal constructions, the
pronoun we instead of I.
Passive constructions are used with the verbs
suppose, assume, presume, conclude, infer,
point out, etc.
Due to the fact that the data and methods of investigation applied in the
#
ACTIVITY
TYPE
1
Arranging
information
Classification includes a general class, a specific item or items, a
basis for classification, which is frequently not stated because it is
understood or explained elsewhere.
Comparing is examining two or more items to discover their
similarities and differences.
2
Seeking
relationships
Cause and Effect connect events or situations. Causes explain why
something happens, effects describe outcomes. One effect may be
humanities are less objective than in the exact sciences (math, chemistry, physics),
there are less passive constructions used.
The necessity to quote passages under observation and to amplify arguments
seriously affects syntactical patterns. In the humanities some well-known
pronouncement may be subjected to re-evaluation, whereas in the exact sciences
much can be accepted without question and therefore need no comment.
Any piece of scientific prose is impersonal in form, devoid of emotional
coloring, marked by syntax, governed by logical reasoning. Some theories call for the
use of emotionally colored words, which reveal to the writer‟s attitudes, to the facts
of the issue (scientific discussions). Scientific prose style uses special emphatic
constructions to lay a logical stress on some part of the sentence, e.g.: It is not solely
from water that oxygen is to be obtained [Гумовская, 2008: 72].
There are the following types and steps in scientific research:
Table 64 - Scientific Research
95
produced by many causes and one cause may produce many
effects2.
Hypothesing means to find out a tentative or temporary solution to
a scientific problem or an explanation for why something happens.
It is usually developed from the intuition and based on
observations or facts3. As evidence is gathered to support a
hypothesis and it becomes accepted in the scientific world, it is
referred to as a theory. When a theory explains or unifies a great
deal of information, it becomes known as a principle, or natural
law.
3
Clarifying
the Concept
Defining makes scientists sure that they are understood by other
researchers. Aristotle suggested that a good definition should
include the general classification of a term plus the specific
characteristics that differentiate the term from other members of
the class.
Exemplifying gives evidence to support any definition and to
explain a concept4.
Proof or Evidence is usually the result of observation or
experimentation, combined with reasoning. The theories that are
accepted are those with the most supporting evidence5.
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning moves from evidence to a
conclusion. Deductive reasoning moves from a general assumption
to a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning moves from a specific
observation to a general conclusion.
4
Introducing
a Scientist‟s
View of the
World
Reporting is based on the intelligent, accurate cooperation of
observations and discoveries and on communication of these ideas.
Description tells about conditions, results of an experiment,
changes, movements, characteristics or distinctive features of an
object.
Predicting is making a claim that something will happen in the
2
It is the job of science to connect situations and events and thereby discover the how‘s and why‘s of our
world. They say religion answers the question what for.
3
Thus, Charles Darwin‟s hypothesis about evolution came to him while he was riding in a carriage (he wrote, I
can remember the very spot in the road), but the idea was the product of many years of study and experimentation.
4
A Chinese proverb says that a picture is worth a thousand words.
5
This theory was accepted because it predicted the position of the planet with some accuracy. Thirteen centuries later,
the Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus proved that the planets resolve around the Sun by demonstrating that his theory
explained things that Ptolemy‟s theory could not, like the seasons of the Earth and the retrograde or backward notion of
the planets. Then, in 1905 Albert Einstein shook everyone up by saying that motion is relative and that whether the Sun
is moving or the Earth is moving depends upon your point of view! And on and on we go, always striving to get closer
to the truth. But scientific theories can seldom be proven beyond a doubt.
In the second century, Claudius Ptolemy proposed that the planets and the Sun revolved around the Earth.
96
future. It is based on the assumption that what we can predict, we
can protect ourselves again.
According to the type of scientific activities, it is possible to find out its
#
TYPE
PATTERNS
1
CLASSIFICATION:
(there is more than
one way matter may
be classified)
Modals of possibilities: can, could, may.
Present Simple.
Be classified, be grouped into, be divided, be
arranged, be categorized; be an example of a / a type of
/a kind of / a form of, etc.
2
COMPARISON
(similarities or
differences)
Comparing similarities: resemble, parallel, be like,
be similar to, be comparable to, be as important as.
Comparing differences: be unlike, be different from,
differ from, unlike something, in contrast to, compared to,
in comparison to, relatively, comparatively.
3
CAUSES & EFFECTS
(complex)
Cause, result in, produce, induce, be caused by, be
induced by, be produced by, be due to, if, when, as.
4
HYPOTHESIS
(always due to
progress)
Present Simple. Saying something always happens
is the same as predicting that it will happen.
5
DEFINITION
Term = general class word + specific
characteristics
Term = specific characteristics + general class
word
A relative clause beginning with which, that, who,
where.
The form of an infinitive or prepositional phrase,
e.g.: Energy is the ability to do work.
Present Simple and the verb to be. The use of the
modal may indicates that there is more than one way to
define something.
The definite article the is not usually used with the
term being defined, because definitions are general
statements.
6
EXAMPLE
The Present Simple Tense.
linguistic features and sentence patterns:
Table 65 - Structural Patterns of Scientific Research
97
(memorable,
interesting and
persuasive)
Be an example / a case / an instance / an
illustration; exemplify, illustrate; for example, for
instance, to be specific.
7
EVIDENCE
(a fact, not opinion)
The words like indicate or demonstrate are used
more often than prove, that reflects the „unprovable‟
nature of most scientific hypotheses.
8
REPORT
Past Simple is used, if actions took place a long
time ago and are completed.
For uncompleted actions Present Perfect is used.
9
DESCRIPTION
(the structure and
function of an
object)
Adjectives are objective and concrete.
Dimensions are quantitative.
Present Simple, the verbs to be and to have.
10
PREDICTION
may be done quite
accurately or in
terms of probability.
A probable prediction will come true if certain
conditions are met. Future Simple.
The prediction is hypothetical if certain conditions
are unlikely to occur. The modals would, could, might.
Future-in-the-Past. If-clauses.
Any prediction based on a past condition can be not
fulfilled, it is an impossible prediction. Future-Perfect-inthe-Past.
Our regular audience, being students of linguistic, will face the need of doing
research at their last years of study at the University as they are to write a diploma
project, i.e. an important and carefully planned piece of work that is intended to
produce something new, or to deal with a new problem in linguistics.
Research is broadly defined as a systemic investigation towards increasing the
sum of knowledge. One of the first steps a student needs to take is to identify a
general idea which interests him/her. It may be increasing the general understanding
of language as a system, or translation; or improving some aspects of translation or
teaching practice.
Many scholars in the philosophy of science make a distinction between
conceptual (theoretical) and empirical research. The distinction is between a focus
more on ideas or on data.
Conceptual research aims to define and clarify concepts, to interpret ideas, to
introduce new concepts that allow a better understanding of the research object.
Empirical research, on the other hand, seeks new information derived from the
observation of data and from experimental work [Гумовская, 2008: 92-93].
98
Seminar 3.2. Stylistic Analysis of Scientific Papers
Being interested in linguistic research, you should find its more detailed
description of stages, moves and steps in the book The Map (A Beginner‘s Guide to
Doing Research in Translation Study) by J. Williams and A. Chesterman.
1. Find out the stylistic characteristics of the following texts. Write down a
stylistic analysis of the Scientific method.
2. Identify the general idea of research which seems interesting to you.
Formulate the most general claim of your future research. Forecast the theoretical and
practical significance of your future project, its practical implication.
Text 3.2.1 - Scientific method from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena,
acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be
termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable,
empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A
scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and
experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable
features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge.
Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design
experimental studies to test these hypotheses. These steps must be repeatable in order
to dependably predict any future results. Theories that encompass wider domains of
inquiry may bind many independently-derived hypotheses together in a coherent,
supportive structure. This in turn may help form new hypotheses or place groups of
hypotheses into context.
Among other facets shared by the various fields of inquiry is the conviction that
the process be objective to reduce biased interpretations of the results. Another basic
expectation is to document, archive and share all data and methodology so they are
available for careful scrutiny by other scientists, thereby allowing other researchers
the opportunity to verify results by attempting to reproduce them. This practice,
called full disclosure, also allows statistical measures of the reliability of these data
to be established.
Text 3.2.2 - Starting and Finishing an MA Thesis by Галина Гумовская
An MA thesis in any field of knowledge is usually written in accord with some
universal scheme that is highly standardized. This applies both to the structure of the
whole text, its design and to the arrangement of individual parts:
1. Introduction where the researcher states his/her aims and introduces the
main claim;
2. Theoretical part which provides a framework for research;
99
3. Analytical (experimental) part which displays the process of examining
a particular subject, the methods and principles applied;
4. Conclusion which describes the results of the research done after
considering all the information collected. In Linguistics Studies one is also to have a
summary of Conclusion, either in English or in the native language;
5. Bibliography
6. Appendix (if any).
You might draft your Introduction quite early, but it will probably be the last
thing you revise into its final form. It will be one of the first bits the reader looks at.
Here you need to catch the readers interest, and persuade them that it is worth
reading further.
Introduction in good academic writings tends to follow fairly standard
patterns, consisting of particular items. But never use for your introduction the
preambles of books on similar subjects. Different books have different aims and do
not meet the requirements of your research.
First of all, you should state the object of study, i.e. the area of knowledge that
interests you, for example, written texts belonging to specific spheres of activity and
scholarly literature on lexicography. Then, you should narrow the field of research to
a particular aspect and state the subject of research, e.g. special terminology and
terminography, that is the way terms are registered and standardized in
terminological dictionaries.
Next, you should prove that the subject of your research is a matter of current
topical interest to science and society. The subject of research should be up to date,
immediately touching upon urgent linguistic problems, in your case, the problems of
terminology, as it is in this domain that the development of civilization is indicated
and special terms serve as an instrument of professional work and training.
The aim of research is to make a contribution to the field of linguistics which
increases the sum of knowledge. It may be formulated, for example, in the following
way: to present theoretical as well as practical aspects of compiling a dictionary of
special terms; or to describe linguistic relations between terms and the general
vocabulary; or to classify and systematize language units united by a common
concept within the semantic field of business / law / medicine, etc.
One of the steps you will need to take next is to formulate the main claim in the
form of a statement, argument, or hypothesis. If there is no hypothesis or claim, your
work will not meet the requirements of a research project and will present a
collection of fact and examples, a description of the current or historical state of your
problem.
The probable claims in your research may be formulated as follows: the terms
under study (business / legal / medical, etc) form a closely knit sector of vocabulary
characterized by a common concept and form a semantic field of business / law /
medicine. All the terms within this field are semantically interdependent, as each
member helps to delimit and to determine the meaning of its neighbours and is
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