Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Стилистика. Учебное пособие
.pdf
ought to suffer were enjoying themselves in Italy (where well-to-do Englishmen go
for holydays)‘.
It is possible to say, any linguistic deviation is a disruption of the normal
communicative processes: it leaves a gap, as it were, in one‟s comprehension of the
text. The gap can be filled, and the deviation rendered significant, but only if by an
effort of his imagination the reader / listener perceives some deeper connection which
compensates for the superficial oddity [Leech, 1969: 61].
COLLOQUIAL & STRUCTURAL PATTERNS
As in colloquial speech, ellipsis (pronounced / /) consists in omission of
some parts of the sentence that are easily understood from the context or situation.
But while in colloquial style this omission simply makes the speech more compact, in
literary descriptions it may give the construction an additional expressive or
emotional coloring as in the lines from The Merchant of Venice by W. Shakespeare:
Youth is full of pleasance,
Age is full of care;
Youth like summer morn,
Age like winter weather…
Break-in-the-Narrative (aposiopesis pronounced /æpəsaɪəˈpisɪs/) consists in a
sudden stop in the middle of a sentence. The idea of this SD is that the speaker cannot
precede, his feelings depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of
language, as in Don Juan by Byron, when the continuation is quite clear:
―And oh! if e‘er I should forget, I swear –
But that‘s impossible, and cannot be.‖
Question-in-the-Narrative is asked and answered by one and the same
person, usually the author. Sometimes question-in-the-narrative gives the impression
of an intimate talk between the writer and the reader as in the following extract from
A Christmas Carol by Ch. Dickens: „Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course he did.
How could it be otherwise? Scrooge and he were partners for I don‘t know how
many years‘.
Represented speech is the case when the speech of a character in the work of
fiction is represented without quotation marks, as if it were the author‟s speech of The
Man of Property by J. Galsworthy: „Old Jolion was on the alert at once. Wasn‟t the
„man of property‟ going to live in his new house, then?‘
Rhetorical question is a special SD the essence of which consists in reshaping
the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. There is a simultaneous
interplay of two structural meanings: 1) that of the question, 2) that of the statement.
Rhetorical questions pronounce judgments and express various kinds of modal shades
of meaning, as doubt, challenge, scorn, irony, as in the following lines by G. Byron:
Is the poor privilege to turn the key
Upon the captive, freedom?
51
Rhetorical questions, due to the power of expressing a variety of modal shades
of meaning, are most often used in publicist style (in oratory), where the rousing of
emotions is the effect generally aimed at.
Litotes is a SD consisting of peculiar use of negative constructions. The
negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or
thing. This positive feature however is somewhat diminished in quality as compared
with a synonymous expression making a straightforward assertion of the positive
feature, as in the example from Beowulf: That [sword] was not useless.
Thinking on syntax, there is a distinction between the DEEP and SURFACE
STRUCTURES of a sentence. The deep structure directly reflects the meaning of the
sentence, whereas the surface structure relates to the way in which a sentence is
actually uttered. The example is the any passive construction, where the logical
subject differs from the grammatical one. Deep structure may be characterized as the
„semantic end‟ of syntax, and surface structure as the „phonological end‟ [Leech,
1969: 45].
Seminar 2.2. Grammatical Issues of Stylistic Analysis
Analyzing grammar, we have to involve a hierarchy of levels again: sentences
are made up of one or more clauses, clauses are made up of one or more phrases,
phrases are made up of one or more words, and words are made up of one or more
morphemes.
Section 2.2.1. Description.
In this section, we are examining the following pieces of literature by J. Keats,
J. Gardam and W. Shakespeare in the light of the view that grammatical patterns play
an important role in the structural text organization (emotional and logical stresses).
Text 2.2.1 – The Human Seasons by J. Keats
FOUR Seasons fill the measure of the year;
There are four seasons in the mind of man:
He has his lusty Spring, when fancy clear
Takes in all beauty with an easy span:
He has his Summer, when luxuriously
Spring's honey'd cud of youthful thought he loves
To ruminate, and by such dreaming high
Is nearest unto heaven: quiet coves
His soul has in its Autumn, when his wings
He furleth close; contented so to look
On mists in idleness - to let fair things
Pass by unheeded as a threshold brook.
He has his Winter too of pale misfeature,
Or else he would forego his mortal nature.
52
Text 2.2.2 – From Bilgewater by Jane Gardam
(1) The interview seemed over. (2) The Principal of the college sat looking at
the candidate. (3) The Principal's back was to the light and her stout, short outline
was solid against the window, softened only by the fuzz of her ageing but rather
pretty hair. (4) Outside the bleak and brutal Cambridge afternoon - December and
raining.
(5) The candidate sat opposite wondering what to do. (6) The chair had a soft
seat but wooden arms. (7) She crossed her legs first one way and then the other - then
wondered about crossing her legs at all. (8) She wondered whether to get up. (9)
There was a cigarette box beside her. (10) She wondered whether she would be
offered a cigarette. (11) There was a decanter of sherry on the bookcase. (12) It had
a neglected air.
(13) This was the third interview of the day. (14) The first had been as she had
expected - carping, snappish, harsh, watchful - unfriendly even before you had your
hand off the door handle. (15) Seeing how much you could take. (16) Typical
Cambridge. (17) A sign of the times. (18) An hour later and then the second interview
- five of them this time behind a table - four women, one man, all in old clothes. (19)
That had been a long one. (20) Polite though. (21) Not so bad. (22) "Is there anything
that you would like to ask us?"
(23) "Yes please, why I'm here. (24) Whether I really want to come even if you
invite me. (25) What you're all like. (26) Have you ever run mad for love? (27)
Considered suicide? (28) Cried in the cinema? (29) Clung to somebody in bed?")
(30) "No thank you. (31) I think Miss Blenkinsop-Briggs has already answered
my questions in the interview this morning." (32) They move their pens about, purse
their lips, turn to one another from the waist, put together the tips of their fingers.
(33) I look alert. (34) I sit up-right. (35) I survey them coolly but not without respect.
(36) I might get in on this one. (37) But don't think it is a good sign when they're nice
to you, said old Miss Bex. (38) And now, here we are. (39) The third interview. (40)
Meeting the Principal.
(41) An interview with the Principal means I'm in for a Scholarship. (42) How
ridiculous!
(43) I can't see her face against the light. (44) She's got a brooding shape. (45)
She is a mass. (46) Beneath the fuzz a mass. (47) A massive intelligence clicking and
ticking away - observing, assessing, sifting, pigeonholing. (48) Not a feeling, not an
emotion, not a dizzy thought. (49) A formidable woman.
(50) She's getting up. (51) It has been delightful. (52) She hopes that we may
meet again. (53) (Does that mean I'm in?) (54) What a long way I have to come for
an interview. (55) The far far north. (56) She hopes that I was comfortable last night.
(57) We shake hands in quite a northern way. (58) Then she puts on a coat very nice coat, too. (59) Fur. (60) Nice fur. (61) Something human then about her
somewhere.
(62) She walks with me to the door and down the stairs and we pause again on
the college steps.
(63) There is a cold white mist swirling about, rising from the river. (64) The
trees lean, swinging long, black ropes at the water. (65) A court-yard, frosty, of
53
lovely proportions. (66) A fountain, a gateway. (67) In the windows round the
courtyard the lights are coming on one by one. (68) But it is damp, old, cold, cold,
cold. (69) Cold as home.
(70) Shall I come here?
(71) Would I like it after all?
Text 2.2.3 - All the World‟s a Stage from As You Like It by W. Shakespeare
All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages. At first the infant,
Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms.
And then the whining school-boy, with his satchel
And shining morning face, creeping like snail
Unwillingly to school. And then the lover,
Sighing like furnace, with a woeful ballad
Made to his mistress' eyebrow. Then a soldier,
Full of strange oaths and bearded like the pard,
Jealous in honour, sudden and quick in quarrel,
Seeking the bubble reputation
Even in the cannon's mouth. And then the justice,
In fair round belly with good capon lined,
With eyes severe and beard of formal cut,
Full of wise saws and modern instances;
And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts
Into the lean and slipper'd pantaloon,
With spectacles on nose and pouch on side,
His youthful hose, well saved, a world too wide
For his shrunk shank; and his big manly voice,
Turning again toward childish treble, pipes
And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all,
That ends this strange eventful history,
Is second childishness and mere oblivion,
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.
54
Tasks
1. GRAMMATICAL SCHEMES. Is there any formal or structural repetition
(anaphora, parallelism) or any 'mirror-image' patterning (chiasmus)? If so, do these
schemes bring about effects of antithesis, reinforcement, climax, anticlimax, etc.?
2. PHONOLOGICAL SCHEMES. Are there any patterns of sound (rhyme, half-
rhyme, alliteration, assonance) or rhythm? Are there noticeably frequent occurrences
of the same or similar sound-clusters? Is there sound symbolism or are there musical
devices which affect interpretation?
Section 2.2.2. Self-Expression
1. In your stylistic analysis, throw light upon the grammatical features of
poetry, prose and drama.
2. Analyze all implicit and explicit aspects of antithesis in the following
abstract by Леонид Андреев.
3. Translate into English the given below poem by Булат Окуджава.
Text 2.2.4 - From Губернатор by Леонид Андреев
В общем, при всем внешнем различии в языке и степени грамотности,
содержание писем было утомительно однообразно: друзья предупреждали,
враги грозили, и выходило что-то вроде коротких и бездоказательных "да" и
"нет". К словам: "убийца", с одной стороны, и "доблестный защитник
порядка" – с другой, он привык, так часто, почти неизменно повторялись они в
письмах; как будто привык он и к тому, что все, и друзья и враги, одинаково
верили в неизбежность смерти. И только холодно становилось и хотелось
согреться, но нечем было: чай был холодный - теперь всегда почему-то ему
подавался холодный чай, и холодна была высокая, казенная кафельная печка.
Уже давно, с самого поселения своего в этом доме, он хотел сделать камин, но
так и не устроил, а старая печь плохо прогревалась при самой усиленной
топке. Безнадежно потершись спиной о холодные кафли, только внизу чутьчуть теплевшие, он прохаживался раза два по холодному кабинету, согревал
руку о руку и говорил своим великолепным, командующим басом:
- Однако как я стал зябок!
Text 2.2.5 – Как научиться рисовать by Булат Окуджава
Если ты хочешь стать живописцем,
ты рисовать не спеши.
Разные кисти из шерсти барсучьей
перед собой разложи,
белую краску возьми, потому что
это - начало, потом
желтую краску возьми, потому что
все созревает, потом
55
серую краску возьми, чтобы осень
в небо плеснула свинец,
черную краску возьми, потому что
есть у начала конец,
краски лиловой возьми пощедрее,
смейся и плачь, а потом
синюю краску возьми, чтобы вечер
птицей слетел на ладонь,
красную краску возьми, чтобы пламя
затрепетало, потом
краски зеленой возьми, чтобы веток
в красный подбросить огонь.
Перемешай эти краски, как страсти,
в сердце своем, а потом
перемешай эти краски и сердце
с небом, с землей, а потом...
Главное - это сгорать и, сгорая,
не сокрушаться о том.
Может быть, кто и осудит сначала,
но не забудет потом!
Notes
56
2.3. Lexical Stylistics
To our mind, lexis deals with painting that is representational. A painting does
not simply reproduce the visual stimuli an observer would receive if he were looking
at the scene it depicts: what is artificially interesting is how it deviates from
photographic accuracy, from simply being a „copy of nature‟ [Leech, 1969: 56].
Lexical and semantic expressive means act against the norms as well.
Painting is a mode of expression and the forms are numerous. Paintings can be
naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic,
abstract, be loaded with narrative content, symbolism, emotion, as well as lexical
units.
Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are of music.
Color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects. Moreover the
use of language is only a generalization for a color equivalent. The word red, for
example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the visible spectrum
of light. To some extent it deals with the linguistic category of concept. There is not a
formalized register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different
notes in music, such as C or C♯.
For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic and derived
(complementary or mixed) colors (like red, blue, green, brown, etc.). Painters deal
practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues: phtalocyan,
Paris blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological, symbolical
meanings of color are not strictly speaking means of painting. Colors only add to the
potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this the perception of a
painting is highly subjective. The analogy with semantics is quite clear. Furthermore,
the analogy with music is obvious - sound in music (like „C‟) is analogous to light in
painting, „shades‟ to dynamics, and coloration is to painting as specific timbre of
musical instruments to music - though these do not necessarily form a melody, but
can add different contexts to it.
Rhythm is also important in painting as well as in music. If one defines rhythm
as „a pause incorporated into a sequence‟, then there can be rhythm in paintings.
These pauses allow creative force to intervene and add new creations - form, melody,
coloration. The distribution of form, or any kind of information is of crucial
importance in the given work of art and it directly affects the esthetical value of that
work. This is because the esthetical value is functionality dependent, i.e. the freedom
(of movement) of perception is perceived as beauty
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting_(disambiguation), Retrieved 13.08.2011].
Free flow of energy, in art as well as in language, directly contributes to the
esthetical value. In such a way the kinds of art and the levels of language are
overlapped in beauty.
57
2.3.1. Lexis
The idea of using one particular communicative purpose is based on the fact
that no national language is a whole. Its constituents are used in different
communication spheres. The stylistic diversity of any national language is due to the
heterogeneous character of its vocabulary.
Following the tradition of three styles (grand, medium, plain), Prof. I.R.
Galperin divided the whole word stock of English into three main levels:
58
Picture 3 - Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary (by Prof. I. Galperin)
NEUTRAL VOCABULARY
LITERARY
NEUTRAL
COLLOQUIAL
infant
child
kid
parent
father
dad
commence
begin
go ahead
EXAMPLES
MODERN EQUIVALENTS
EFFECT
Quoth
Said
Elevated effect.
Foe
Enemy
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under
the term standard English vocabulary.
Neutral words form a bulk of the vocabulary, they are the main source of the
polysemy, synonymy, and producing of new meanings. Stylistically neutral words
usually constitute the main member in a group of synonyms, the so called
SYNONYMIC DOMINANT: they can be used in any style; they are not emotionally
colored and have no evaluating elements.
Common literary words are used in writing and in polished speech. They
stand in opposition to the colloquial units:
Table 35 - Literary, Neutral & Colloquial Units
SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY
In 1951 in his book Words and Their Use Stephen Ullmann said: ‗All scientists
are linguists to some extent. They are responsible for devising a consistent
terminology, a skeleton language to talk about the subject-matter. Philologists and
philosophers of speech are in the peculiar position of having to evolve a special
language to talk about language itself'.
This quotation makes clear one of the essential characteristics of a term – its
highly conventional character. A term is generally very easily coined and easily
excepted. Terms are directly relevant to the system or set of words used in a
particular science, discipline or art, i.e. to its nomenclature. Thus, in linguistic
stylistics the terms expressive means, stylistic devices, functional styles are used.
Therefore it may be said that terms belong to the style of language of science.
But their use is not confined to this style. Terms may appear in other styles – but their
function in this case changes. When used in other styles, the terms indicate either
some technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with or make some reference to the
occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and
expressions.
Poetic and highly literary words are quite few in number, mostly archaic in
character or rare words:
Table 36 - Poetic & Highly Literary Words
59
Poetical words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a
TYPE
FEATURES
EXAMPLES
EFFECT
OBSOLESCENT
In the stage of gradually
passing out of general use just rarely used.
Thou (=you)
To create a
realistic
background in
historic novels,
to make the
atmosphere of
the past and
local colors.
OBSOLETE
Out of use, but still
recognizable.
Methink‘ (=it seems
to me), nay (=no)
ARCHAIC
PROPER
No longer recognizable.
Old English troth
(=faith), losel (=a
lazy fellow)
limited number of readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is
sometimes called poetic jargon.
The poetic diction of the Augustan age was also noted for favourite expressions
such as watery store (=sea), fleecy care (=sheep), feather‘d race (=birds) [Groom,
1955: 110-115]. Typically, such periphrasis consists of a descriptive adjective
followed by a collective or abstract noun.
A modern English literary critic has remarked that in journalese a policeman
never goes to an appointed spot, he proceeds to it. The sky is in the interpretation of
the picturesque reporter is the welkin, fire is the devouring element. It is interesting,
Eliot in The Waste Land juxtaposes high-flown poetical diction and stock journalistic
phraseology:
The nymphs are departed.
…
Departed, have left no addresses.
Archaisms (pronounced / /) as the „survival of the language of the
past into the language of the present‟ show different stages in the aging process of
words, so they are:
Table 37 - Archaic Words
Archaisms overlap with poetic words; they extend beyond the sphere of the
national vocabulary. The use of archaisms is also required decoding.
Archaisms are also used in different styles: thus, the style of official documents
uses many obsolescent words, such as thereby and others. In general, archaisms are
used to produce an elevated effect, to suit to solemn occasions.
Archaic language is naturally invested with a dignity and solemnity, which
comes from its association with the noble literary achievements of the past [Leech,
1969: 14].
they are HISTORICAL WORDS. By-gone periods in the life of any society are marked by
historical events, and by institutions, customs, objects which are no longer in use, e.g.
thane, goblet, baldric, mace.
There is still another group of words which is erroneously classed as archaic,
60
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]