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Words of this type never disappear from the language – they are historical
TYPE
FEATURES
EXAMPLES
EFFECTS
BARBARISMS
They have
already become
facts of the
English
language and are
generally given
in the body of
the dictionary.
Bon mot (=a clever
witty saying).
To supply a
local color, to
provide a specific
background to the
natives.
To reproduce
the manner of speech
and local
environment.
To perform the
elevation function
(especially, in poetry
and folklore).
To color a
passage with a touch
of authority (in the
publicist style).
FOREIGNISMS
They do not
belong to the
English
vocabulary; they
are not
registered by
English
dictionaries.
The little boy, too, we
observed, had a
famous appetite, and
consumed schinken,
and braten, and
kartoffeln, and
cranberry jam… with
a gallantry that did
honour to his nation.
(W. Thackeray, Vanity
Fair)
TERMINOLOGICAL
BORROWINGS
They still retain
their foreign
appearance, but
have no
synonyms.
Udarnik, kolkhoz,
bliezkrieg, solo.
Terminological
function.
TYPE
FEATURES
EXAMPLE
TERMINOLOGICAL
COINAGE
Those which designate newborn concepts.
Globalization
terms. They have no synonyms, while archaic words have been replaced by modern
synonyms.
Barbarisms & foreignisms are words of a foreign origin; they have not been
fully assimilated into natural language and seem to be alien to the native language:
chik (=stylish), alter ego (=one‘s second self), status quo (=the existing state of
things):
Table 38 – Foreign Words
resources of the language [Leech, 1969: 42]. The invention of new language items
appears because the authors seek new ways of more sharp and economic expressing
their ideas:
Literary coinage is one of the more obvious ways of exceeding the normal
Table 39 - Literary Coinages
61
STYLISTIC COINAGE
Words coined because their
creators seek expressive
utterance.
Blimp (=an English
colonel), backlash.
NONCE-WORDS
/NONCE-FORMATIONS/
They are created for a single
occasion only, never lose
their novelty and they will
always remain neologisms.
You are the bestest good
one – she said - the most
bestest of the world. (H.E.
Bates)
New words are mainly coined according to the productive models for wordbuilding in the given language. Most of English literary coinages are built with
affixation (the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item already in the language) and
compounding (the joining together of two or more items to make a single compound
one). In the following phrase from Hopkins‟s The Wreck of the Deutschland both
compounding and affixation are used to similar effect: the widow-making unchilding
unfathering deeps.
Another means of extending the vocabulary is functional conversion,
consisting in adapting an item to a new grammatical function without changing its
form [Leech, 1969: 43]. There are some more examples from Hopkins: And storm
bugle his fame and Let him easter in us.
The stylistic effect achieved by newly-coined words generally rests on the
ability of the mind to perceive novelty at the background of the familiar. Quite a
number of widely used English words apparently originated in poetry: blatant
(Spencer), casuistry (Pope) and others.
The effect of literary coinages may be called the „concept-making‟ power.
Thus, Eliot‟s foresuffered is not just a new word, but a newly formulated idea: that it
is possible to anticipate mystically the suffering of the future, just as well as to
foresee, foretell the future events [Leech, 1969: 44].
There is hardly any other term that is as obscure as the term slang. It seems to
mean everything that is below the standard of usage. According to this statement one
may get the idea that language, style and slang have the same nature. Personality and
surroundings determine:
the nature of the slang used by a definite person,
the nature of the language he uses,
the kind of style he writes.
Slang is a special vocabulary used by set of low-character person, language of
a highly colloquial type. Slang is very important for Americans; it is a way to escape
the routine and dullness, thus, bread-bucket may be used for stomach, rot (for
nonsense), the cat‘s pyjamas (for the correct thing).
62
SPECIAL COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY
Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words whose aim is to preserve
CLASS
FEATURES
EXAMPLES
TERMS
The semantic structure is
transparent.
Constitutional rights.
PROFESSIONALISMS
They anew already-existing
concepts, tools or instruments, and
have the typical properties of a
special code. The semantic structure
is deemed by the image
(metaphorically or metonymically).
The main feature - technicality.
Piper (=a baker who
decorates cakes with the
use of a cream-pipe),
outer (=a knockout blow).
SPHERE OF USAGE
EFFECT
CONVERSATION
They are used as a norm by people of underworld character;
habitually, without any thought, in expression of strong
emotions or excess of feelings.
LITERATURE
They are used in the direct speech to add some details to the
characters.
secrecy within a certain social group of people (the recognized code), e.g.: greeze
(=money), soap (=bread), loaf (=head).
Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed to
them. They may be COMMON and PROFESSIONAL. In case the professional jargonisms
lose their professional color, they become slang or common colloquial. Slang differs
from jargon because it is not a secret code; it is just easier understood by other
members of community.
Professionalisms are used in a definite profession and also by people
connected with common interests (both at work and at home). Professionalisms are
not aimed in secrecy: their purpose is to facilitate swift grasp of the message. To
some extent, professionalisms are correlated to terms:
Table 40 - Professionalisms & Terms
Professionalisms are mostly used in a certain oral variety among the
professional group of people, also in literature (in the speech characterization to
depict the characters‟ natural speech, their education, breeding and so on).
Vulgarisms are: (1) swear words of abusive character, (2) obscene (four-letter)
words, the use of which is bent because they make the intercourse offensive.
Table 41 - Spheres of Vulgar Usage
The scholars admit bitterly that in modern fiction the taboo of vulgarisms is
left. Moreover, vulgarisms have even been introduced into scientific investigations.
Anyway, vulgar (taboo and curse-words) words are not to be used in the speech of
educated people and are therefore often replaced by euphemisms.
63
Dialectisms are the words which in the process of integration of the English
DIALECTS
EXAMPLES
NORTHERN
Ben (=mountain), bonnie (=beautiful), kirk (=church).
SOUTHERN
Phonetic peculiarities of voiced initial /s/ and /f/ in the words like folk,
see, etc.
language remain beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to
a definite locality.
To the dialects are usually referred the varieties of English used on the territory
of Great Britain, while the word variants refers to the use of English inside this
territory (the English language of the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand), e.g.:
fall (=autumn), sidewalk (=pavement).
English dialects are divided into northern (including the Scottish dialect) and
Southern (including „cockney‟, the dialect of the area south of London):
Table 42 - English Dialects
They are used mainly in the style of literature to characterize the personality
through their speech. They really bring the beauty, specific coloring, providing the
social and cultural inferiority. Thus, in The Shepheardes Calender, Spencer‟s use of
homely provincial words like heydeguyes (a type of dance), rontes (=young
bullocks), weanell (=newly weaned kid of lamb), and wimble (=nimble) evokes a
flavor of rustic naivety in keeping with the sentiments of pastoral [Leech, 1969: 49].
Colloquial coinages, unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are
spontaneous and elusive. Most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace
in it.
Colloquial coinages are based not on the affixation but on semantic changes of
the words: ―This was an opening, and I followed it‖ (=way). They appear in any
sphere of life: any innovation produces some new coinages or they may become
generally excepted words.
2.3.2. Semantics & Pragmatics
The writer may intentionally bring together normally unconnected content, for
instance, literary and non-literary words may come into collision. And this collision
is a basis of various stylistic devices.
W.B. Yeats thought that an irrational element was present in all great. It is
reasonable to translate „semantic deviation‟ mentally into absurdity so long as we
realize that sense is used in a strictly literal-minded way, which would find favour
with a mathematician or logician. This is clearer in the case of an equally celebrated
paradox, Keat‟s Beauty is truth, truth beauty, which equates, as baldly and bluntly as
in mathematical formula, two philosophically important abstractions: „beauty =
truth‟. Keats is proposing some mystical unity of concepts which are ordinarily
treated as distinct [Leech, 1969: 48-49].
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MIXING OF STYLISTIC ASPECTS
Bathos (pronounced / /) is heterogeneity of the component parts of the
utterance because of mixing of stylistic aspects. The effect is in the lowering of the
utterance loftiness.
In the following example by Byron the observation leads us to a poet‟s
intention: the word sermons is metonymically stated to repentance and soda-water –
to sickness. They are payment for other things, so the decoded form of the utterance
is let us enjoy ourselves now despite the consequences. The peculiarity of this device
lies in the juxtaposition that produces a humorous effect:
Let us have wine and women, mirth and laughter,
Sermons and soda-water – the day after.
Bathos is often used in syntactical device of heterogeneous enumeration when
objects are named one by one in the semantic clash of the enumerating words.
INTERACTION OF MEANING
There are different types of meaning interaction: identification, substitution,
contract, interplay, etc.:
I. TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING is generally expressed with a formula The
figurative sense F may replace the literal sense L if F is related to L in such-and-such
a way [Leech, 1969: 148].
Metaphor (pronounced / ; ./) is associated with a particular rule
of transference, called the „Metaphoric Rule‟, and which may be formulated as F =
„like L‟. That is, the figurative meaning F is derived from the literal meaning L in
having the sense like L or as if L.
The primary meaning of the metaphorical word (the object means in reality) is
called its TENOR, its contextual meaning is called VEHICLE. In the given text from
Macbeth In notional terms, life is the tenor of the metaphor and the definition a
walking shadow is its vehicle – the image or analogue in terms of which the tenor is
represented:
Life‘s but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.
Naturally enough, metaphoric transference can only take place if some likeness
is perceived between tenor and vehicle. This brings us to the third notional element of
metaphor: the GROUND OF THE COMPARISON [Richards, 1936: 96-116]. Every
metaphor is implicitly of the form X is like Y in respect of Z, where X is a tenor, Y the
vehicle, Z the ground. Talking about metaphorical transference of meaning, we feel it
to be the most potent means of creating images; metaphor is able to fill even short
text with imagery and emotive coloring, as far as in the poem Fog by Carl Sandburg:
65
The fog comes
CRITERION
TYPE
FEATURES
EXAMPLES
SEMANTIC
Genuine
Always unique.
Some books are to be tasted,
others swallowed, and some
few to chewed and digested (F.
Bacon).
Trite / dead
Used in common
speech.
Seeds of evil.
A flight of imagination.
STRUCTURAL
Simple
Expressed by a word
or phrase.
Man cannot live by bread
alone.
Complex /
sustained /
prolonged
A broader context is
required to understand
it, or when the
metaphor includes
more than one
element of the text.
Your balloon-like mind is
entirely filled with egotistical
gas (A.J. Cronin, The Citadel).
On little cat feet.
It sits looking
Over harbor and city
On silent haunches
And then moves on.
The whole picture is not concrete: fog is correlated with cat, in respect of the
color, fluffiness, noiseless moving and so on.
Metaphor is the way of representing objects with the help of other phenomena;
it doesn‟t mean that these two objects are similar. They are identified by the author
due to the presence of common components in the meaning of the words while in
reality their denotations are not connected.
There are different criteria for metaphor classifications:
Table 43 - Types of Metaphor
The complex metaphor contains some central image and other words that add
the implication; sometimes even a whole utterance may become a sustained
metaphor, as in the following lines by A.J. Cronin: Yet she did feel with all her soul
that in those days his idealism has been pure and wonderful, illuminating both their
lives with a clear white flame. Now the flame has turned yellower and the globe of the
lamp was smudged.
As far as everything in the art, the subjectivity of metaphor perception depends
on the culture of the reader which is limited by lexical meanings of words.
Metonymy (pronounced / /) is a figure of speech that consists in using
the name of one thing for that of something else with which it is associated
66
[Webster‟s Third New International Dictionary]. To some extent, metonymy can be
SD
EXAMPLES
EFFECT
HUMOR
I have a high respect for your nerves. They are
my old friends (J. Austen, Pride and Prejudice).
Good and warm
laughter.
IRONY
Бесконечны лишь Вселенная и глупость
человеческая, при этом относительно
бесконечности первой из них у меня
имеются сомнения (А. Эйнштейн).
Not only a funny
effect, but often a
negative
meaning.
SARCASM
Богаты мы, едва из колыбели,
Ошибками отцов и поздним их умом…
Ridicule or
mockery is used
regarded as a kind of ellipsis.
Usually metonymies attract the readers‟ attention to some important details,
foreground them.The main classes of metonymy include:
1) The name of a part instead the name of a whole - SYNECDOCHE
(pronounced / /), e.g. My fingers wait your orders (J. Austen, Pride and
Prejudice).
2) The name of a container instead of the content, e.g. The hall applauded
(J. D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye); И как-то дико, по-оперному, рассмеялся,
схватил меня, проломил мне череп и уехал во Владимир-на-Клязьме. Зачем
уехал? Мое недоумение разделяла вся Европа (В. Ерофеев, Москва-Петушки).
3) The name of a characteristic feature of an object instead of the object,
e.g. the massacre of the innocents.
4) The name of an instrument instead of an action or the doer of an action,
e.g. It had been done when he took silk and it represented him in a wig and gown (S.
Maugham, The Painted Veil).
The relation between metonymy and metaphor is expressed in the following
quotation by G. Esnault: Metonymy does not open new paths like metaphorical
intuition, but, taking too familiar paths in its stride, it shortens distances so as to
facilitate the swift intuition of things already known [Ullmann, 1964: 177].
Another rule of transference might be called the „Quotation Rule‟, used in
irony. Interpreting the paradox That truth is a lie, we make sense of an apparent
absurdity by reading it as if part were enclosed in quotation marks. An example is
Jane Austen‟s You have delighted us long enough, spoken by Mr Bennett to his
daughter, who is overzealously entertaining the company with her mediocre musical
talent (J. Austen, Pride and Prejudice). The superficial oddity of this remark lies in
the qualifying of delighted by long enough, which suggests paradoxically that after a
certain period of delighting no more delights [Leech, 1969: 149].
The opposition of the dictionary and contextual meaning created FUNNY
EFFECT and may be found in humor, irony, and sarcasm:
Table 44 - Funny Effect
67
Насмешкой горькою обманутого сына
Над промотавшимся отцом.
(М.Ю. Лермонтов, Дума)
harshly, often
crudely and
contemptuously,
for destructive
purposes.
II. POLYSEMANTIC EFFECT means interaction of primary and derivative
SD
EXAMPLES
ZEUGMA
The Nymph shall lose her Heart or necklace at a Ball. (A. Pope, The
Rape of the Lock)
За окном шел снег и рота красноармейцев5.
PUN
- What is the difference between the schoolmaster and the train driver?
- One trains the mind and another minds the train!
Весна хоть кого с ума сведет. Лед - и тот тронулся (Э. Кроткий).
meanings.
Zeugma (pronounced / /) is the use of a word in the same grammatical
but different semantic relations to two neighboring words. As usual, zeugma realizes
two meanings with the help of the verb referring to two different objects. Pun differs
from zeugma structurally; it does not necessarily refer to one word in a sentence:
Table 45 - Zeugma
Pun may refer to a whole work of fiction. The most well-known example is
The Importance of Being Earnest by O. Wilde (the proper name of the main character
– Earnest – means the ability to be seriously minded).
III. INTENSIFICATION OF A CERTAIN FEATURE finds out one of the qualities of the
object to make it sound essential.
Epithet (pronounced / /) is a SD, based on the interplay of emotive and
logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to characterized
an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the
5
In is interesting how many stylistic devices are used in the short introduction to the novel Штирлиц или Как
размножаются ежики by Павел Асс and Нестор Бегемотов:
«За окном шел снег и рота красноармейцев.
Иосиф Виссарионович отвернулся от окна и спросил:
- Товарищ Жюков, вас еще не убили?
- Нет, товарищ Сталин.
- Тогда дайте закурить.
Жуков покорно вздохнул, достал из правого кармана коробку «Казбека» и протянул Сталину.
Покрошив несколько папирос в трубку, главнокомандующий задумчиво прикурил от протянутой спички.
Через десять минут он спросил:
- А как там дела на Западном фронте?
- Воюют, - просто ответил Жуков.
- А как чувствует себя товарищ Исаев?
- Ему трудно, - печально сказал Жуков.
- Это хорошо, - сказал Сталин, - у меня для него есть новое задание...
А за окном шел снег и рота красноармейцев».
68
properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception
SD
FEATURES
EXAMPLES
EFFECT
EPITHET
Markedly
subjective and
evaluative.
Wild wind. Loud ocean.
Heart-burning smile.
It indicates the emotional
coloring, individual
impression.
LOGICAL
ATTRIBUTE
Descriptive,
purely objective,
non-evaluating.
White snow.
Pale complexion.
It indicates an inherent or
prominent feature of the
thing or phenomenon.
and evaluation of these features or properties: That‘s something else that gives me a
royal pain (J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye).
The epithet differs from the logical attribute:
Table 46 - Epithet & Logical Attribute
Oxymoron (pronounced / /) is a combination of two words (mostly
an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the
two clash, being opposite in sense: low skyscraper, sweet sorrow, horribly beautiful.
Antonomasia consists in the use of a proper name instead of a common name
and vice versa. The author may use a description instead of a person‟s name, creating
a kind of nickname: Mr. Know-all (a character of S. Maugham), Miss Sharp (by W.
Thackeray). On the other hand, a proper name may be used instead of a common
name: He looked at himself in the glass. Here, then, was a modern Hercules - very
distinct from that unpleasant naked figure with plenty of muscles, brandishing a club
(A. Christie).
Allegory (pronounced / /) is a device by which the names of objects or
characters of a story are used in figurative sense, representing some more general
things, good or bad qualities. This is often found in fables, parables and proverbs,
which contain generalizations: Every cloud has a silver lining (=even in bad situation
we may find positive elements).
Personification (pronounced / /) is a subtype of allegory, by
which human qualities are ascribe to inanimate objects, phenomena or animals. For
example, in the well-known song by Newton John Olivia: “Twinkle, little star! / How
I wonder what you are!” a star is represented as if it were a living being whom the
author addresses.
In poetry, fable personification is often represented grammatically by the
choice of masculine or feminine pronouns in the names of animals, inanimate objects
and forces of nature: he is used for the Sun, the Wind; she is used for the Moon,
Nature, Beauty.
In a simile (pronounced / /) the two things to be compared and sometimes
the ground of the comparison are spelt out in succession. The comparison itself, too,
is made explicit by means of such constructional elements as like, as…as, such as, as
69
if, seem, more tan: She was like a rosebud that is beginning to turn yellow at the
SD
FEATURES
EXAMPLES
METAPHOR
More concise and
immediate. The
determination of a
ground may logically
precede the
determination of a
tenor.
He asked himself fretfully if he was to spend
all his life running his head into stone walls.
(A.J. Cronin, Citadel)
Ах, увял головы моей куст,
Засосал меня песенный плен.
Осужден я на каторге чувств
Вертеть жернова поэм.
(С. Есенин, Хулиган)
SIMILE
More explicit and
flexible. It can specify
the ground or the
manner of the
comparison.
Round the laps of their mothers,
Many sisters and brothers,
Like birds in their nest,
Are ready for rest.
(W. Blake)
Не обгорят рябиновые кисти,
От желтизны не пропадет трава.
Как дерево роняет тихо листья,
Так я роняю грустные слова.
(C. Есенин, Отговорила роща золотая)
SD
EXAMPLES
SIMILE +
METAPHOR
The City now doth, like a garment, wear
The beauty of morning.
(W. Wordsworth, Sonnet Composed upon Westminster Bridge)
И быстро шли дни, как взмахи огромных крыльев: вверх
взмахнет - день, вниз повеет – ночь (Л. Андреев, Губернатор).
SD
EXAMPLES
EFFECT
COMPARISON
The boys seem to be as clever as
Establishing the degree of their
edges of the petals (S. Maugham, The Painted Veil).
Thus, simile is an overt, and metaphor is a covert comparison:
Table 47 - Simile & Metaphor
Simile and metaphor are often combined, producing a hybrid comparison:
Table 48 - Hybrid Comparison
By the way, simile differs from ordinary comparison. Comparison means
weighting two objects belonging to one class of things. It takes into consideration all
the properties of the two objects, stressing the one that is compared. Simile excludes
all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them:
Table 49 - Simile & Comparison
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