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their mother.
sameness or difference.
SIMILE
Maidens, like moths, are ever
caught by glare (Byron).
Foregrounding the most important
feature of the object.
Periphrasis (pronounced / /) is a device which denotes the use of a
SD
FEATURES
EXAMPLES
LOGICAL
PERIPHRASIS
Based on one of the inherent
properties or perhaps a passing
feature of the object described.
Instruments of destruction
(=pistols by Ch. Dickens).
FIGURATIVE
PERIPHRASIS
Based either on metaphor or on
metonymy, the key-word of the
collocation being the word used
figuratively.
The punctual servant of all work
(=the sun by Ch. Dickens); to tie
the knot (=to marry).
EUPHEMISM
(pronounced
/
/)
Used to replace an unpleasant word
or expression by a conventionally
more acceptable one.
To die = to pass away, to be no
more, to depart, to join the
majority, to kick the bucket.
longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. The
examples of well-known dictionary periphrasis are: my better half (=my wife), a
gentleman of the long robe (=a lawyer), the fair sex (=women).
Stylistic periphrasis can be divided into:
Table 50 - Periphrasis
Periphrastic and euphemistic expressions were characteristic of certain literary
trends and even produced a term PERIPHRASTIC STYLE.
Hyperbole (pronounced / /) is a deliberate overstatement or
exaggeration of a feature essential to the object or phenomenon, as in the following
example from Alice in Wonderland by L Carroll: ―Curiouser and curiouser!‖ cried
Alice (she was so much surprised, that for the moment she quite forgot how to speak
good English).
Like many SDs, hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic device through
frequent repetition and become a language hyperbole, e.g.: She bored him to death
(S. Maugham, The Painted Veil).
Litotes (pronounced / /) is a device based on a peculiar use of negative
constructions in the positive meaning, so that, on the face of it, the quality seems to
be underestimated (diminished), but in fact it is shown as something very positive
and intensified: I shouldn‟t be at all surprised if you hadn‟t the ghost of an idea
what mine was (S. Maugham, The Painted Veil).
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SET-EXPRESSIONS
A cliché (pronounced / /) is generally defined as an expression that has
become hackneyed and trite. Examples of real clichés are: rosy dreams of youth, the
patter of little feet.
A cliché strives after originality, whereas it has lost the aesthetic generating
power it once had. There is always a contradiction between what is aimed at and what
is attained.
Proverbs and sayings are facts of language, collected in dictionaries. Their
most characteristic feature lies not in its formal linguistic expression, but in the
content-form of the utterance. Usually they are allegoric and based on rhythm, rhyme
and alliteration: All is not gold that glitters (=impressive words or people are not
always really so good as they seem).
Therefore, the main feature distinguishing proverbs and sayings from ordinary
utterances remains their semantic aspect. Their literal meaning is suppressed by what
may be termed their transferred meaning, that is one meaning (literary) is the form for
another meaning (transferred) which contains the idea.
A proverb or a saying is a peculiar mode of the utterance, which is mainly
characterized by its brevity, as in „First come, first served‘ or ‗Out of sight, out of
mind‘. Such brevity is often achieved by asyndeton.
The most noticeable thing about the functioning of sayings and proverbs is that
they may be handled not in the fixed form but with modifications, e.g.: ―Come!‖ he
said, ―milk‟s split‖ (J. Galsworthy). This device is often used in the publicist style in
phrases like Early to bed and early to rise / No use – unless you advertize.‘
The use of set phrases, the meaning of which is understood only as a whole
becomes stylistically marked in the case of their decomposition. The SD of
decomposition of set phrases consists in the fact that each word of the combination
acquires its literal meaning, which of course, often leads to the realization of
absurdity: in the sentence It was raining cats and dogs, and two kittens and a puppy
landed on my window-sill by G. Chesterton the fusion to rain cats and dogs is
freshened by the introduction of kittens and a puppy.
An epigram (pronounced / /) is a SD akin to a proverb (terse, witty,
pointed), the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose
names we know and refer to. For example, the following epigram by Byron is well
known:
… in the days of old men made manners;
Manners now make men.
A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech, used
by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the
matter in hand. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas
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(““), dashes ( - ), italics or other graphical means. Unlike epigrams, they need not
necessarily to be short.
The use of quotations presupposes a good knowledge of the past experience of
the nation, its literature and culture.
2.3.3. Intertextual Features
An allusion (pronounced / /) is an indirect reference, by word or phrase,
to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in
the course of speaking or writing. As a rule no indication of the source is given.
The volume of meaning in the given below allusion by W. Thackeray from
Vanity Fair goes beyond the actual knowledge of the character‟s traits. Even the
phrases about the road and the coachmen bear indirect reference to Dickens‟s
Pickwick Papers: „Where is the road now, and its merry incidents of life!.. Old
honest, pimple-nosed coachmen? I wonder where are they, those good fellows? Is old
Weller alive or dead?‘ Nevertheless, an allusion is only a mention of a word or
phrase which may be regarded as the key-word of the utterance.
Just as the eye picks out the figure as the important and meaningful element in
its field of vision, so the reader or listener picks out the linguistic deviation as the
most arresting and significant part of the message, and interprets it by measuring it
against the background of the expected patterns [Leech, 1969: 57].
The expected patterns of style the functional stylistics studies.
Seminar 2.3. Lexical Issues of Stylistic Analysis
We generally suppose the literature cannot be examined in any depth apart
from the language, any more than the language can be studied apart from the
literature [Leech, 1969: 1].
Section 2.3.1. Description
In this section, we are examining the following pieces of literature by G.
Byron, M. Twain and W. Shakespeare in the light of the view that patterns of
vocabulary and meaning play an important role in the revealing text concept.
Text 2.3.1 - From Childe Harold‟s Pilgrimage by Byron
Whilome in Albion‘s isle there dwelt a youth,
Who ne in virtue‘s ways did take delight;
But spent his days in riot most uncouth,
And vexed with mirth the drowsy ear of Night.
Ah, me! in sooth he was a shameless wight,
Sore given to revel and ungodly glee;
Few earthly things found favour in his sight
Save concubines and carnal companie,
And flaunting wassailers of high and low degree.
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Childe Harold was he hight: - but whence his name
And lineage long, it suits me not to say;
Suffice it, that perchance they were of fame,
And had been glorious in another day:
But one sad losel soils a name for aye,
However mighty in the olden time;
Nor all that heralds rake from coffined clay,
Nor florid prose, nor honeyed lines of rhyme,
Can blazon evil deeds, or consecrate a crime.
Text 2.3.2 – From A Connecticut Yankee in King Author‟s Court by M. Twain
"Ah, Clarence, good boy, only friend I've got, - for you are my friend, aren't
you? - don't fail me; help me to devise some way of escaping from this place!"
"Now do but hear thyself! Escape? Why, man, the corridors are in guard and
keep of men at arms."
"No doubt, no doubt. But how many, Clarence? Not many, I hope?"
"Full a score. One may not hope to escape." After a pause hesitatingly: "and
there be other reasons and weightier."
"Other ones? What are they?"
"Well, they say oh, but I daren't, indeed daren't!"
"Why, poor lad, what is the matter? Why do you blench? Why do you tremble
so?"
"Oh, in sooth, there is need! I do want to tell you, but"
"Come, come, be brave, be a man-speak out, there's a good lad!"
He hesitated, pulled one way by desire, the other way by fear; then he stole to
the door and peeped out, listening; and finally crept close to me and put his mouth to
my ear and told me his fearful news in a whisper, and with all the cowering
apprehension of one who was venturing upon awful ground and speaking of things
whose very mention might be freighted with death.
"Merlin, in his malice, has woven a spell about this dungeon, and there bides
not the man in these kingdoms that would be desperate enough to essay to cross its
lines with you! Now God pity me, I have told it! Ah, be kind to me, be merciful to a
poor boy who means thee well; for an thou betray me I am lost!"
I laughed the only really refreshing laugh I had had for some time; and shouted:
"Merlin has wrought a spell! Merlin , forsooth! That cheap old humbug, that
maundering old ass? Bosh, pure bosh, the silliest bosh in the world! Why, it does
seem to me that of all the childish, idiotic, chuckle headed, chicken livered
superstitions that ev.. oh, damn Merlin!"
But Clarence had slumped to his knees before I had half finished, and he was
like to go out of his mind with fright.
"Oh, beware! These are awful words! Any moment these walls may crumble
upon us if you say such things. Oh call them back before it is too late!"
Now this strange exhibition gave me a good idea and set me to thinking. If
everybody about here was so honestly and sincerely afraid of Merlin's pretended
magic as Clarence was, certainly a superior man like me ought to be shrewd enough
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to contrive some way to take advantage of such a state of things. I went on thinking,
and worked out a plan. Then I said:
"Get up. Pull yourself together; look me in the eye. Do you know why I
laughed?"
"No but for our blessed Lady's sake, do it no more."
"Well, I'll tell you why I laughed. Because I'm a magician myself".
"Thou!" The boy recoiled a step, and caught his breath, for the thing hit him
rather sudden; but the aspect which he took on was very, very respectful. I took quick
note of that; it indicated that a humbug didn't need to have a reputation in this
asylum; people stood ready to take him at his word, without that. I resumed.
"I've known Merlin seven hundred years, and he"
"Seven hun"
"Don't interrupt me. He has died and come alive again thirteen times, and
traveled under a new name every time: Smith, Jones, Robinson, Jackson, Peters,
Haskins, Merlin a new alias every time he turns up. I knew him in Egypt three
hundred years ago; I knew him in India five hundred years ago he is always
blethering around in my way, everywhere I go; he makes me tired. He don't amount
to shucks, as a magician; knows some of the old common tricks, but has never got
beyond the rudiments, and never will. He is well enough for the provinces one night
stands and that sort of thing, you know but dear me, he oughtn't to set up for an
expert anyway not where there's a real artist. Now look here, Clarence, I am going to
stand your friend, right along, and in return you must be mine. I want you to do me a
favor. I want you to get word to the king that I am a magician myself and the
Supreme Grand High yu Muck amuck and head of the tribe, at that; and I want him
to be made to understand that I am just quietly arranging a little calamity here that
will make the fur fly in these realms if Sir Kay's project is carried out and any harm
comes to me. Will you get that to the king for me?"
Text 2.1.3 - From Twelfth Night by W. Shakespeare
ACT III
SCENE I. OLIVIA's garden.
(Enter VIOLA, and Clown with a tabour)
VIOLA
Save thee, friend, and thy music: dost thou live by
thy tabour?
Clown
No, sir, I live by the church.
VIOLA
Art thou a churchman?
Clown
No such matter, sir: I do live by the church; for
I do live at my house, and my house doth stand by
the church.
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VIOLA
So thou mayst say, the king lies by a beggar, if a
beggar dwell near him; or, the church stands by thy
tabour, if thy tabour stand by the church.
Clown
You have said, sir. To see this age! A sentence is
but a cheveril glove to a good wit: how quickly the
wrong side may be turned outward!
VIOLA
Nay, that's certain; they that dally nicely with
words may quickly make them wanton.
Tasks
1. Identify archaisms (lexical, grammatical, etc.) in the given stanzas by
Byron. To help in this, attempt a paraphrase of the first stanza in everyday modern
English.
2. Are there any obvious violations of or departures from the 'normal'
linguistic code? Are there neologisms or deviant lexical collocations?
3. If there are deviations on other language levels (semantic, syntactic,
phonological, graphological) do they lead you to interpret in terms of such figures of
speech as metaphor or irony? Do they lead you to see other features such as
personification, concretization, synaesthetic effects etc?
Mind the technique, provided by Prof. Geoffrey N. Leech, for analyzing
metaphors, which may be used not for discovering the figure but to explain what have
already been caught [Leech, 1969: 153-156]. The method of metaphor analysis
consists of a sequence of directions to the reader:
i. Separate literal from figurative use.
ii. Construct tenor and vehicle, by postulating semantic elements to fill in
the gaps of the literal and figurative interpretations.
iii. State the ground of the metaphor.
Section 2.3.2. Self-Expression
1. Why may the language be defined as a dictionary of faded metaphors?
Why is metonymy the key principle of the representation of the 20th century art,
whereas in the 19th century metaphors were popular?
2. In your stylistic analysis, throw light upon the vocabulary and lexical
features of poetry, prose and drama.
3. Translate into English the given below story by Александр
Солженицын.
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Text 2.3.4 - Утенок by Александр Солженицын
Маленький жѐлтый утѐнок, смешно припадая к мокрой траве
беловатым брюшком и чуть не падая с тонких своих ножек, бегает передо
мной и пищит: «Где моя мама? Где мои все?»
А у него не мама вовсе, а курица: ей подложили утиных яиц, она их
высидела между своими, грела равно всех. Сейчас перед непогодой их домик —
перевѐрнутую корзину без дна — отнесли под навес, накрыли мешковиной. Все
там, а этот затерялся. А ну-ка, маленький, иди ко мне в ладони.
И в чѐм тут держится душа? Не весит нисколько, глазки чѐрные — как
бусинки, ножки — воробьиные, чуть-чуть его сжать — и нет. А между тем —
тѐпленький. И клювик его бледно-розовый, как наманикюренный, уже
разлапист. И лапки уже перепончатые, и жѐлт в свою масть, и крыльца
пушистые уже выпирают. И вот даже от братьев отличился характером.
А мы — мы на Венеру скоро полетим. Мы теперь, если все дружно
возьмѐмся, — за двадцать минут целый мир перепашем.
Но никогда! — никогда, со всем нашим атомным могуществом, мы не
составим в колбе, и даже если перья и косточки нам дать, — не смонтируем
вот этого невесомого жалкенького жѐлтенького утѐнка…
Notes
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3. Functional Stylistics
#
TARGET FACTOR
SOURCE FACTOR
FUNCTION
1
(a referent, a co-text, that is, the
other verbal signs in the same
message, and the world in which
the message takes place)
Message
REFERENTIAL
(denotative, cognitive,
representative,
informative)
2
ADDRESSER
(a sender, or enunciator )
Message
EMOTIVE
(expressive)
3
ADDRESSEE
(a receiver, or enunciatee)
Message
CONATIVE
(appellative, imperative,
directive)
FUNCTIONAL means talking about functions. In stylistics we consider the
function to be: (1) a system of language patterns, (2) a task that the system is able to
perform. Thus, as far as in engineering, a function is interpreted as a specific process,
action realizing both aspects [Baker, 1992].
In mathematics, a function associates one quantity, the argument of the
function, also known as the INPUT, with another quantity, the value of the function,
also known as the OUTPUT. The argument and the value may be elements from any
given set. For language the input is an idea, the output is a message.
Because functions are so widely used, many
traditions have grown up around their use. The
symbol for the input to a function is often called the
independent variable or argument and is often
represented by the letter x. The symbol for the output
is called the dependent variable or value and is often
represented by the letter y. The function itself is most
often called f, and thus the notation y = f(x) indicates
that a function ƒ takes an input, x, and returns an
output ƒ(x)
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics), Retrieved 21.08.2011].
One metaphor describes the function as a „machine‟ or „black box‟ that
converts the input into the output. In stylistics there are some clear mechanisms and
language patterns which transform the idea into the appropriate message. Appropriate
to the communicative situation.
The well-known model of the functions of language introduced by Roman
Jakobson comprises six elements, or factors (the terms of the model), which are the
focal points of oriented relations (functions) operating between the message and the
factor [Jakobson, 1960: 350-377]:
Table 51 - Factors of Communication & Language Functions (by R. Jackobson)
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4
CONTACT
(a channel between an addresser
and addressee)
Message
PHATIC
(relational or contact)
5
CODE
Message
METALINGUAL
(metasemiotic)
6
MESSAGE
Message
POETIC
(aesthetic or rhetorical)
Representatives of the well-known Prague school – V. Mathesius, T. Vachek,
DIALECTS
REGISTERS
A language contains different
regional (used by the inhabitants
of different areas) and social
dialects (characterizing a
particular social class or section
of the community). There is also a
privileged dialect, a Standard
English, which cuts across the
boundaries of regional dialects,
and is, in fact, international.
Amongst the circumstances, which affect the use
of English, it is usual to distinguish the medium
of communication, the social relation between
the participants, and the role of communication.
The social relation between the participants
determines the tone of the discourse (colloquial
or formal, familiar or polite, personal or
impersonal, etc.). The role of a piece of language
is the place it has in the manifold patterns of
human activities and institutions (legal,
scientific, liturgical, advertising English, etc.).
J. Havranek – focused their attention on the priority of the situational appropriateness
in the choice of language varieties for their adequate functioning. Thus, functional
stylistics deals with sets, paradigms of language units of all levels of language
hierarchy serving to accommodate the needs of certain typified communicative
situation [Кухаренко, 2009: 6].
In the tradition abroad, the diversities of English usage may be distinguished
according to the background of the speaker (dialects) and according to the
communicative situation (registers). Thus, a dialect is established to be a language
according to user, whereas a register – a language according to use:
Table 52 - Varieties of English Usage
When we find ourselves in a given communicative situation, we automatically
switch ourselves into the 'set of mind' for producing or receiving messages in the
appropriate register. Any deviation from expected patterns of linguistic behavior
brings about a reaction of disorientation and surprise.
grammar, lexis and semantics. The Englishes of different roles are most clearly
differentiated by special vocabulary: legal English by fossilized forms like
hereinafter; scientific language by its innumerable technical terms (generally
composed of Greek elements like philology). Grammatical differences are striking in
Registers, like dialects, are distinguished by special features of pronunciation,
79
religious English, for example, the obsolete second person singular pronoun
thou/thee/thy/thine with its attendant verb forms shouldst, etc. [Leech, 1969: 8-11].
In Russian tradition a language according to user and use is studied in the
paradigms of functional stylistics. These paradigms distinguished by the pragmatic
aspect of the communication are called FUNCTIONAL STYLES (FS). They tell how the
same language differs when used for different purposes on different occasions in
communication with different people [Знаменская, 2008: 7].
Due to the two aspects of the function, functional style may be defined as a
patterned variety of literary text characterized by a system of coordinated, interrelated
and interconditioned language means intended to aim at a definite effect [Гальперин,
1977: 249].
The authors of English, German, French, Russian stylistics propose more or
less analogous systems of styles based on a broad subdivision of all styles into two
classes: literary and colloquial and their varieties [Знаменская, 2008: 11]. On the one
hand, only 2 major types of style may be suggested, as far as it is mentioned in the
conception of Prof. I.V. Arnold [Арнольд, 1990]. On the other hand, Prof. Y.M.
Skrebnev maintains that the number of sublanguages and styles is infinite [Скребнев,
2000].
A majority of scholars agree that a well-developed language, such as English,
is streamed into several functional styles:
Official style, represented in all kinds of official documents and papers.
Scientific style, found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific
and academic publications.
Publicist style, covering such genres as essay, feature article, public speeches,
etc. [Кухаренко, 2009: 7].
Prof. I.R. Galperin distinguishes also:
Newspaper style, observed in the majority of information materials printed in
newspapers.
Belles-lettres style, embracing numerous and versatile genres of imaginative
writing [Гальперин, 1977: 249].
To our mind, newspaper style may be included in the publicist one due to the
persuasive communicative function and similar language features.
As for the style of literature, it constitutes a special role of language because of
a distinct social or cultural function, the aesthetic function. Moreover, there is no
such a thing as a literary register, a code of accepted usage, in literature. Rules in
literature seem to be made only to be broken. By the way, it is interesting to note a
certain resemblance between literature and the institutions, which typify conservatism
in language: law and religion. Scriptures, statutes and literary classics are three kinds
of text, which are preserved for future ages word by word and sentence by sentence.
They are more than historical documents, surviving as dead exhibits in museums and
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