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Файл:Сonstruction equipment for civil engineers. Учебно-практическое пособие
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Unit 2
CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDING
Task 1
Exercise 1. Before reading the text discuss the following questions
in pairs:
1. Have you ever thought of architecture as art? Why (not)?
2. Do you consider an architect is a worker or a man of art (artist)?
3. What best-known buildings of the world do you know?
Architecture as art
People don’t always think of architecture as art. If you look at
the average block-of flats in your neighbourhood, it’s easy enough to
understand why not all buildings can be considered “art”. But if you
look at some of the best-known buildings of the world — from ancient
times to today — it’s clear that a lot more goes into a building than
concrete, metal and glass. In fact, architecture is art on a very grand
scale and provides an excellent example of how people make art part of
their everyday lives.
Let’s look at some examples of architecture as art. Think for a minute of the Acropolis of Athens. The Parthenon has long been considered
a nearly perfect structure. Its geometry and great beauty have stood for
thousands of years and it is still one of the finest works of art of its kind
today. The Sydney Opera House is another fine example of the art of
architecture. Its graceful image in Sydney harbour is one that the entire
world recognizes. Finally, Chicago’s Sears Tower, for many decades the
tallest building in the word, set a new standard for skyscrapers and modern architecture in general.
What exactly goes into creating a great building? In many ways,
the process of building is very similar to the process that an artist goes
through when creating a great painting or sculpture or other work of
art. There are many steps from start to finish. These steps are followed
in the building of almost any structure to some degree. The amount of
creativity and imagination together with the skill and knowledge of the
architect are the ingredients for truly great architecture.
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Exercise 2. Find the equivalents:
1) average a) узнавать
2) neighbourhood b) средний, обычный
3) consider c) небоскреб
4) concrete d) окрестности
5) glass e) гавань
6) harbour f) бетон
7) recognize g) обеспечивать
8) skyscraper h) стекло
9) provide i) считать
Exercise 3. Find the equivalents of the following word combination
in the text above:
1) многоквартирный дом;
2) отличный пример;
3) Афинский Акрополь;
4) совершенная конструкция;
5) грациозный образ;
6) во многом;
7) в некоторой степени;
8) небоскреб Сирс Тауэр (Виллис Тауэр).
Exercise 4. Answer the questions:
1. Not all buildings can be considered “art”, can they? Give some
examples.
2. What goes into a building besides concrete, metal and glass?
3. What excellent examples of perfect structures are mentioned in
the text?
4. What skyscraper was the tallest building in the world for many
decades?
5. What are the ingredients for truly great architecture?
6. Why is the process of building very similar to the process of creating
a great sculpture or other work of art?
Exercise 5. Make a report about one of the most wonderful buildings
in the world.
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Task 2
Exercise 1. Before reading the text discuss the following questions
in pairs:
1. Do you know the difference between the terms “house” and
“home”?
2. Do you live in a flat or in a house? What is better?
Types of buildings
A house is a building for people to live in. It is usually built for a
family (parents and their children) to live in. Most modern houses have
special areas or rooms for a person, or a family group to do the things
that they need to live comfortably. A modern house has a place to cook
food, a place to eat, places to sleep and a place to wash. These things
are usually done in separate rooms, which are called the kitchen, the
sitting room, the bedrooms, the bathroom, and the toilet (or lavatory).
Many houses have a separate dining room for eating meals and a
separate laundry. In some houses the toilet is in the bathroom, and in
other houses it is separate. Many houses may also have a “study” or
computer room and a “family room” where the children can play games
and watch television.
A. Detached house
In some countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia
and New Zealand many families live in a “detached house” which is
separate from other buildings and surrounded by its own yard, but is
close enough to town to have shops, good transport and entertainment
nearby. In many other countries, including most of Europe, owning a
house like this is something that only the richer families can afford, and
is just a dream for most people.
B. Houses in very poor places
In many very poor countries, a lot of people live crowded in houses
with only one room. They often have to share a toilet with many other
families, and have to do the cooking outside. The house might be made
of materials that can be found nearby like mud bricks and grass or from
second-hand materials like corrugated iron and cardboard boxes. In
many cities there are thousands of small houses crowded together with
narrow alleys between them.
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C. Cottage
A small house is often called a cottage. In England, where this word
comes from, it is used to mean a house that has one main storey, with
a second, lower storey of bedrooms which fit under the roof upstairs.
Cottages are usually found in villages or in the countryside. They are
nearly always built from material that can be found nearby. In many
places the word cottage is used to mean a small old-fashioned house. In
the United States the word cottage is often used to mean a small holiday
home.
D. Semi-detached or duplex
A semi-detached house is a building that has two houses side by side
and covered over by just one big roof. Each house has a pathway to one
side, leading from the front to the backyard. Semi-detached houses are
very common in some cities, and can be single storey or several storeys
high.
E. Rowhouse
A rowhouse, which is sometimes called a “terraced house” is a house
that is part of a row of houses which are joined at the side walls. Many
cities and towns have thousands of rowhouses because they are a good
way to build lots of houses close together. Many rowhouses have two
rooms downstairs and two rooms upstairs, with a kitchen or wash area
out the back. Houses like this were built for poor factory workers and
coal miners in many cities and towns.
Rowhouses are not always small. Some cities have large beautiful
rowhouses like the Royal Crescent which was built 200 years ago at Bath
in England and is a famous example of Georgian architecture.
F. Bungalow
In some places, the word “bungalow” is used for any house that is all
on one level. The word came from India and for a long time was used for
a house that is built all on one level and has a verandah where people can
sit or work outdoors, but under a shady roof. A bungalow often has a hall
down the middle of the house to let the breeze blow through. Bungalows
are often seen in countries with hot summers, in India, South East Asia,
South Africa, parts of the United States, South America, Australia and
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New Zealand. In regions with flooding, a bungalow is often built up
on wooden “stilts” or a high basement. In the 1800s, bungalows were
nearly always built of wood, but from the 1920s it became fashionable to
build them of brick as well.
G. Farmhouse
A farmhouse may look like a cottage, a bungalow or a mansion,
but in many countries a farmhouse can look quite different to a house
in a town, because, as well as having a place for people to live, it also
has a place for animals. Three typical types of farmhouses are found.
Many farm houses are long and have two doors. One door leads to the
rooms used by the family. The other door opens into a stable for the
cows, sheep and chickens. The stable part often has a loft where hay can
be kept to feed the animals in the winter. Another type of farmhouse
has two storeys with a big stable and storeroom underneath, with the
rooms for the family on the upper floor. Another type of farmhouse has
buildings such as the family house, the barn and the stable all joined
together around a central courtyard. Old farmhouses of these three types
can be found in many parts of Europe and Great Britain.
H. Mansion
A mansion is a big grand house, usually with two storeys and
sometimes more. A mansion often has beautiful architecture, and shows
that the person for whom it was designed and built was rich. Mansions
often have beautiful gardens. Sometimes a mansion does not belong to
a private family, but to a town council, to a big business company, to a
church or college and is a place for a person with an important job to
live and to entertain guests. A mansion often has rooms which are not
found in ordinary houses, such as a drawing room, a ballroom, a library
and a music room. Mansions often need servants to help keep them in
order and there are often special rooms where the servants do particular
jobs such as cleaning the silver tableware. Well-known mansions are the
White House in Washington, D.C., where the President of the United
States lives and Mansion House in London where the Lord Mayor of
London lives.
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I. Palace
A palace is a house that is very grand. Palaces are some of the most
famous and beautiful houses in the world.
They have often been built by people who were extremely rich, and
who wanted to leave behind them a sign that their family was important.
Some palaces have taken a long time to build. They have been changed
and added to by different family members or changed by people from
different families that have owned them over many hundreds of years.
One of the best-known palaces in the world is Buckingham Palace
where the monarch of England, who is currently Queen Elizabeth II,
lives. The largest palace in the world is the Louvre which was built in
Paris for the Kings of France. It now holds a famous art gallery.
Exercise 2. Match the type of the building with its definition:
1) apartment a) a tall building with a lot of people
living there
2) detached house b) a flat
3) cottage c) a house that is joined to other
houses on both sides
4) semi-detached house d) a house that is joined to another,
house for two families
5) rowhouse (terraced house) e) a house that is not joined to another one, house for one family
6) bungalow f) a small house without stairs, onestoreyed house
7) block of flats g) a big house for a rich family
8) mansion h) a small house, usually in the country
Exercise 3. What types of building would you like to live and why?
Exercise 4. Imagine you are buying a new flat or house. What is the
house of your dream. The sentences below can help you to describe the
house or flat of your dream.
— I prefer a house to a flat (Why?).
— It must face South (West).
— It must have a lot of natural light.
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— It should have nice views/nice location.
— It must be near the countryside.
— It must have amenities nearby (parks, mountains, culture centres,
sports centres…).
— I want my privacy.
— I would not live in a tough area (Why not?).
— My flat has to be in the city centre (Why?).
Task 3
Exercise 1. Before reading the text answer the following questions:
1. What countries have the tallest skyscrapers in the world?
2. What is the tallest building that has been constructed recently?
3. What are the tallest buildings in Russia (Moscow)?
4. Do you like skyscrapers? Why/Why not?
Skyscrapers
A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building of many
stories, often designed for office and commercial use. There is no
official definition or height above which a building may be classified as a
skyscraper. One common feature is that skyscrapers tend to make use of
a steel framework structure from which walls are suspended, rather than
having load-bearing walls as seen in conventional buildings.
As there is no official definition of what constitutes a skyscraper,
a relativ
ely small building may be considered one if it protrudes well
above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The
maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building
methods and technologies. “Supertall” has arisen as a contemporary
expression for exceptionally tall buildings, although again there is no
formal definition.
Modern skyscrapers are built with materials such as steel, glass,
reinforced concrete and granite, and routinely utilize mechanical
equipment such as water pumps and elevators. Until the 19th century,
buildings of over six stories were rare, as having great numbers of stairs
to climb was impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually
insufficient to supply running water above 50 m (164 ft).
The word “skyscraper” originally was a nautical term referring to
a small triangular sail set above the skysail on a sailing ship. The term
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was first applied to buildings of steel framed construction of at least
10 storeys in the late 19th century, a result of public amazement at the
tall buildings being built in major cities like Chicago, New York City,
Detroit, and St. Louis. The first steel frame skyscraper was the Home
Insurance Building (originally 10 storeys with a height of 42 m or 138 ft)
in Chicago, Illinois in 1885.
Modern skyscrapers. From the 1930s onwards, skyscrapers also began to appear in Latin America (Sao Paulo, Santiago, Caracas, Bogota,
Mexico City) and in Asia (Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila, Singapore, Mumbai, Seoul, Kuala Lumpur, Taipei, Bangkok). Immediately after World War II, the Soviet Union planned eight massive skyscrapers dubbed “Stalin Towers” for Moscow; seven of these were eventually
built. The rest of Europe also slowly began to permit skyscrapers, starting with Madrid, during the 1950s. Finally, skyscrapers also began to
be constructed in cities of Africa, the Middle East and Oceania (mainly
Australia) from the late 1950s.
In the early 1960s structural engineer Fazlur Khan realized that the
rigid steel frame structure that had “dominated tall building design and
construction so long was not the only system fitting for tall buildings”,
marking the beginning of a new era of skyscraper revolution in terms of
multiple structural systems. His central innovation in skyscraper design
and construction was the idea of the “tube” structural system, including
the “framed tube”, “trussed tube”, and “bundled tube”.These systems
allowed far greater economic efficiency, and also allowed efficient
skyscrapers to take on various shapes, no longer needing to be boxshaped. Over the next fifteen years, many towers were built by Khan and
the “Second Chicago School”, including the massive 442-meter (1,451foot) Willis Tower. Since 2000, Cities like Chicago, Shanghai, Dubai,
New York, and Toronto have experienced a huge surge in skyscraper
construction. Chicago, Hong Kong, and New York City, otherwise
known as “the big three”, are recognized in architectural circles as having
especially compelling skylines. A landmark skyscraper can inspire a boom
of new high-rise projects in its city, as Taipei 101 has done in Taipei since
its opening in 2004. In 2010, The Bank of America Tower at One Bryant
Park became the world’s first commercial LEED Platinum skyscraper.
History of tallest skyscrapers. At the beginning of the 20th century,
New York City was a center for the Beaux-Arts architectural movement,
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attracting the talents of such great architects as Stanford White
and Carrere and Hastings. As better construction and engineering
technology became available as the century progressed, New York
and Chicago became the focal point of the competition for the tallest
building in the world. Each city’s striking skyline has been composed
of numerous and varied skyscrapers, many of which are icons of 20th
century architecture.
The Flatiron Building, designed by Daniel Hudson Burnham and
standing 285 ft (87 m) high, was one of the tallest buildings in the city
upon its completion in 1902, made possible by its steel skeleton. It was
one of the first buildings designed with a steel framework, and to achieve
this height with other construction methods of that time would have
been very difficult. (The 1889 Tower Building, designed by Bradford
Gilbert and considered by some to be New York’s first skyscraper, may
have been the first building to use a skeletal steel frame.) Subsequent
buildings such as the Singer Building, the Metropolitan Life Tower were
higher still.
The Woolworth Building, a neo-Gothic “Cathedral of Commerce”
overlooking City Hall, was designed by Cass Gilbert. At 792 feet (241 m),
it became the world’s tallest building upon its completion in 1913, an
honour it retained until 1930, when it was overtaken by 40 Wall Street.
That same year, the Chrysler Building took the lead as the tallest
building in the world, scraping the sky at 1,046 feet (319 m). Designed
by William Van Alen, an Art Deco style masterpiece with an exterior
crafted of brick, the Chrysler Building continues to be a favourite of
New Yorkers to this day.
The Empire State Building, the first building to have more than 100
floors (it has 102), was completed the following year. It was designed by
Shreve, Lamb and Harmon in the contemporary Art Deco style. The
tower takes its name from the nickname of New York State. Upon its
completion in 1931 at 1,250 feet (381 m), it took the top spot as tallest
building, and towered above all other buildings until 1972. The antenna
mast added in 1951 brought pinnacle height to 1,472 feet (449 m), lowered in 1984 to 1,454 feet (443 m).
The World Trade Center officially reached full height in 1972, was
completed in 1973, and consisted of two tall towers and several smaller
buildings. For a short time, the first of the two towers was the world’s
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tallest building. Upon completion, the towers stood for 28 years, until
the September 11 attacks destroyed the buildings in 2001. Various
governmental entities, financial firms, and law firms called the towers
home.
The Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) was completed in 1974,
one year after the World Trade Center, and surpassed it as the world’s
tallest building. It was the first building to employ the “bundled tube”
structural system, designed by Fazlur Khan. The building was not surpassed in height until the Petronas Towers were constructed in 1998, but
remained the tallest in some categories until Burj Khalifa surpassed it in
all categories in 2010. It is currently the tallest building in the United
States.
Momentum in setting records passed from the United States to other
nations with the opening of the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, in 1998. The record for world’s tallest building remained in
Asia with the opening of Taipei 101 in Taipei, Taiwan, in 2004. A number of architectural records, including those of the world’s tallest building and tallest free-standing structure, moved to the Middle East with
the opening of the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
This geographical transition is accompanied by a change in approach to skyscraper design. For much of the twentieth century large
buildings took the form of simple geometrical shapes. This reflected the
“international style” or modernist philosophy shaped by Bauhaus architects early in the century. The last of these, the Willis Tower and World
Trade Center towers in New York, erected in the 1970s, reflect the philosophy. Tastes shifted in the decade which followed, and new skyscrapers began to exhibit postmodernist influences. This approach to design
avails itself of historical elements, often adapted and re-interpreted, in
creating technologically modern structures. The Petronas Twin Towers
recall Asian pagoda architecture and Islamic geometric principles. Taipei 101 likewise reflects the pagoda tradition as it incorporates ancient
motifs. The Burj Khalifa draws inspiration from traditional Islamic art.
Architects in recent years have sought to create structures that would
not appear equally at home if set in any part of the world, but that reflect
the culture thriving in the spot where they stand.
Exercise 2. Find the equivalents:
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